Here is a term paper on ‘Coordination’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Coordination’ especially written for school and college students.
Term Paper on Coordination
Term Paper Contents:
- Term Paper on the Meaning of Coordination
- Term Paper on the Need for Coordination
- Term Paper on the Types of Coordination
- Term Paper on the Principles of Coordination
- Term Paper on the Methods of Coordination
- Term Paper on the Hindrances of Coordination
Term Paper # 1. Meaning of Coordination:
Negatively, coordination means the removal of conflicts and over-lapping in administration; positively, it means to secure co-operation and teamwork among the numerous employees of an organization.
Some of the definitions of coordination are given below:
Coordination is “the orderly synchronization of efforts to provide the proper amount, timing and directing of execution resulting in harmonious and unified actions to a stated objective.” — Newman’
“Coordination is the adjustment of the parts to each other and of the movement and operation of parts in time so that each can make its maximum contribution to the product of the whole.” — Terry
“Coordination is a process causing disjunction elements to a concentration on a complex of forces and influence which cause the mutually independent elements to act together.”— L.D. White’
“Coordination is the integration of the several parts into an orderly whole to achieve the purpose of the undertaking.” Charlesworth’
“Coordination is the effort to ensure the smooth interplay of the functions and forces of all the different components and parts of an organisation to the end that its purposes will be realized with a minimum of friction and a maximum of collaborative effectiveness”. — Ordway Tead
According to Mary Follelt, Coordination is the “reciprocal relating of all factors in a situation” which she amplifies as “you cannot envisage the process accurately by thinking of A adjusting himself to B and C and to D. A adjusts himself to B and also to a B influenced by C and to a B influenced by D and to a B influenced by A himself and so on and so on. This sort of reciprocal relating, this interpretation of every part by every other part, and again by every other part as it has been permeated by all should be a goal of all attempts at coordination.”
In the words of Seckler-Hudson, Coordination is “the all important duty of inter-relating the various parts of the work.”
According to Mooney, “Coordination is the first principle of organization and includes within itself all other principles which are subordinate to it and through which it operates.”
Dimock and Dimock state that Coordination is placing the many aspects of an enterprise in proper position relative to each other and to the programme of which they are a part; it is harmoniously combining agents and functions towards the achievement of a desired goal.’
According to Dalton, “Coordination is the process whereby an executive develops an orderly pattern of group effort among his subordinates and secures unity of action as the pursuit of common purpose.”
On the basis of above definitions, the following features of co-ordination may be noted:
(i) Coordination is applied on group-efforts not individual efforts. It involves the patterning of group efforts because an individual who is working in isolation does not affect anyone’s functioning and no need of coordination arises.
(ii) Coordination is a continuous and dynamic process. It is a continuing problem which has no final or once-for-all solution.
(iii) Coordination emphasizes unity of efforts which is the heart of coordination process. It makes the individual efforts integrated with the total process.
(iv) Coordination is executive responsibility.
(v) Coordination has a common purpose of getting organisational objectives achieved.
In general, coordination means making all parts of an organization work harmoniously, without conflicts and without cross-purposes, to achieve the defined goal. It may, however, be mentioned that coordination is a means and not an end in itself. In the words of Newman, “It is not a separate activity but a condition that should permeate all phases of administration.”
Term Paper # 2. Need for Coordination:
Coordination is a first principle of organization. It is needed not only to secure team work and co-operation but also to prevent conflicts that may arise in the working of an organization.
Such conflicts arise due to:
(i) Ignorance of the employees or units of each other’s activities;
(ii) A tendency among men in charge of particular functions and activities to regard their own desk as all-important unmindful of the needs of others and make encroachments on the latter’s sphere of activities; and
(iii) A growing tendency towards empire-building or greed for power among different units of an organization.
Coordination is thus essential for organisational efficiency.
It may take two forms:
(a) Coordination of various activities and
(b) Coordination of individuals.
Term Paper # 3. Types of Coordination:
Coordination can be of two types:
(i) Internal or Functional which is concerned with the coordination of the activities of individuals working in an organization; and
(ii) External or Structural which is concerned with coordinating the activities of different organisational units.
Both types of coordination are effected horizontally and perpendicularly. Horizontally, coordination establishes inter-relation between one employee and another, between one section and another, between one branch and another, between one division and another and between one department and another.
Perpendicularly, coordination is established between one employee and his officer, between officer and his next superior and so on and between one section and a branch, between a branch and a division and so on.
In the words of Dr. Appleby Hierarchy “functions both perpendicularly and horizontally. The horizontal relationship is between units and between agencies commonly regarded as coordination in an effort to distinguish between coordination and administration. Coordination effected between units responsible to a single executive is coordination at the level of units, administration at the level of the executive to whom they are responsible, whereas he in turn participates in coordination with other agencies at his level.”
Term Paper # 4. Principles of Coordination:
Mary Parker Follett who has shifted the principles from techniques has mentioned the following principles of coordination:
(i) Direct Contact:
The principle of direct contact states that coordination can be achieved in a better way through inter-personal relationships. Communication in oral form through personal contacts is more effective to convey and understand ideas, suggestions, views, feelings etc. This helps in removing misunderstanding between two persons or departments making their functioning harmonious.
(ii) Early Beginning:
Coordination should start at the early possible stage, that is at the stage of planning and policy making. At a later stage, when plans a
re executed into actions, coordination becomes difficult when the process has been initiated earlier.
(iii) Continuity:
Coordination is a continuous process. It should always be carried on.
(iv) Reciprocal Relations:
This principle states that all factors in a situation are reciprocally related. The functioning of an individual is influenced by the functioning of others, and in turn it affects the functioning of others. This requires integration of all efforts, actions and interests. This also indicates that the method of achieving coordination is largely horizontal rather than vertical.
Term Paper # 5. Methods of Co-Ordination:
1. Coercive Co-Ordination:
Through Hierarchy:
Coercive co-ordination can be achieved through the organisational hierarchy. If a conflict between the various divisions of a department or between two sections of the same bureau or division arises and is not resolvable through mutual agreement, it is referred to the common official superior. His decision is binding upon them.
However, such occasions should not be oft repeated as decisions so imposed leave a trail of unpleasantness behind them.
Compulsory co-ordination may seem to be an outcome of a fiat of higher authority and may give an impression that it is a matter of issuing orders. It is, however, fallacious to assume that if a proper order issuing authority is there, problem of co-ordination is solved. The issue of proper coordinating order itself involves co-ordination.
In fact, every decision or order is but a moment in a process. It is an organisation product born of an elaborate process of references, consultations and clearances rather than just an order issued without previous thought and preparation.
2. Voluntary Co-Ordination:
In fact, bulk of co-ordination in any organisation is secured voluntarily by mutual adjustment and agreement.
Following are the techniques of voluntary co-ordination:
(a) Conferences:
Co-ordination can be effected through conferences which may be interdepartmental or intradepartmental. Such conferences are beneficial where the number of parties to be consulted is large or where some new policy or proposal is to be explained or where the matter under consultation requires the co-operation of a large many agencies.
Freedom of discussions in such conferences is imperative. In India such a method is being adopted to secure co-ordination of policy and action between Union and the States in various spheres of activities. The Chief Ministers are often called at Delhi to meet the Prime Minister or some other Union Ministers to thrash out issues of policy or chalk out a common line of action.
(b) Through Reference Consultation and Clearance:
Through reference consultation and clearance conflict or duplication can be avoided. Such a method is employed in Government secretariats and departments for coordinating their day-to-day activities. Every proposal or policy which is likely to affect other departments must be circulated amongst them for procuring their agreement before being sent up for decision.
Questions having financial implications should be referred to the finance department with the words ‘Finance, any objection please’ written on the file.
According to Indian administrative procedure, if a secretary of a department sends a question higher up for decision without first clearing it with other departments it is considered as a lapse.
Besides these horizontal references and clearance between departments or sub-units of the same department, vertical references and clearance upward and downwards within the organisational hierarchy are also made. A question necessitating a decision is not sent up to the highest level skipping over intermediate or lower steps of hierarchy.
This process of reference and clearance does cause delay and makes the wheels of administration move slowly. However, this is not too heavy a price for the unity of action which is effected through this method.
The delay can be minimized by circulation of various copies of the papers instead of the one original file, oral consultation over the telephone, or by personnel meeting instead of written reference, direct lateral contacts instead of through proper channel.
(c) Institutional or Organizational Devices:
Co-ordination can be effected by institutional or organisational devices, viz., inter-departmental committees, co-ordination officers, planning commissions or Boards. These bodies are adjunct to organisational hierarchy but not part of it.
Co-ordination is secured through these bodies by exchange of ideas and through consultation. If two or three departments have overlapping jurisdiction, an inter-departmental committee can be constituted for effecting co-ordination.
Single coordinating officers can be useful for co-ordination of field services in a region. In India the D.C. or the Collector and in France the Prefect have proved very useful coordinating officers.
The Planning Commissions effect co-ordination through a central plan prepared in collaboration with the agencies which have to implement it. Such devices are effective for co-ordination of policy and planning and not of routine. Hence, they should be sparingly used.
(d) Standardization of Procedure and Methods:
Standardization of procedure and methods ensures that every worker in the organization will act in the same way under similar circumstances. This results in inculcating advance awareness of one another’s activities, among the members of the group and thus making them co-operate with each other.
Standardization of procedure also facilitates comparison and measurement of results. Common budget and accounting procedures and procurement of supplies procedures check confusion, misappropriation and wastefulness.
(e) Decentralization of Activities:
Co-ordination may be facilitated and conflicts be avoided by the device of decentralization of activities. Each functional activity may be made virtually independent and the central authority may be made nothing more than a ‘kind of holding company’. Such an idea in fact is adopted by large business enterprises having large and complicated activities.
The applicability of this method to public administration would mean that the functional departments should be virtually independent in their operations and the central cabinet should limit itself to co-ordination through budget, planning and personnel.
However, such a method is not easily applicable to Government departments. However, it may be applicable for effecting co-ordination in the Government departments undertaking business activities.
(f) Ideas and Leadership:
If the employees in a Government department or undertaking are convinced of the worthwhileness of the work or the organization, they work as a coherent group and remain united to realize their goal. Stimulating leadership can also enthuse the workers to work unitedly and thus create a sort of esprit de corps among them.
(g) Verbal and Written Communications:
Verbal and written communications can also prove effective in effecting co-ordination. Through them, information and ideas are channelized down, up and across the chain or command.
Every person comes to understand the scope and limits of his functioning, authority and responsibility in relationship with others. But communication to be effective does not require only a communication network but it should also be free from any bottleneck which affects flow of messages adversely.
(h) Centralized House-Keeping Agencies:
Centralized house-keeping agencies also promote co-ordination. In India for instance the Accounting and Auditing service under the Auditor-General, supplie
s under the Director-General of Supplies, construction and repairs of buildings under Central P.W.D. are the central house-keeping agencies through which co-ordination can be effected.
(i) Finance Ministry:
The annual budget which is pursued through Finance Ministry coordinates the resources, expenditures and programmes of the government. The Finance Ministry co-ordinates and reconciles the claims, demands and programmes of the ministries to evolve an agreed plan of action commonly termed as budget.
Further Finance Ministry’s approval is required for the implementation of any programme by the operating departments.
(j) Informal Methods of Co-Ordination:
Besides the formal methods of co-ordination discussed in preceding paragraphs there are certain informal methods of co-ordination as well.
(i) Through personal contacts, free exchange of ideas, frank and candid discussion and agreement by compromise is made possible,
(ii) Committees and Conferences also provide opportunities for such informal consultations.
(iii) Dinners, lunches and tea and cocktail parties have also proved effective media of mass communication.
(iv) A disciplined party system is a very important medium of unofficial co-ordination.
Thus we come to the conclusion that co-ordination is a centripetal force in administration. It can be achieved both through formal and informal methods. The written and verbal communications, conferences, round-table meetings, institutional devices, etc., play as prominent a part in effecting co-ordination as informal methods like lunches and dinners and meetings in committees and conferences.
Term Paper # 6. Hindrances to Effective Coordination:
The vast and expanding activities of the government, the thinning of the span of control and the lack of delegation on the part of high-ups in administration make effective coordination difficult. There is also a limit to which an agency can achieve coordination.
According to Gulick, some of the difficulties arise from:
(i) The uncertainty of the future as to the behaviour of individuals and of people;
(ii) The lack of knowledge, experience, wisdom and character among leaders and their confused and conflicting ideas and objectives;
(iii) The lack of administrative skill and techniques;
(iv) The vast number of variables involved and the incompleteness of human knowledge, particularly with regard to man and life; and
(v) The lack of orderly methods of developing, considering, perfecting and adopting new ideas and programmes.
To these are added four more by Seckler-Hudson. These are the “size and complexity, personalities and political factors, the lack of leaders with wisdom and knowledge pertaining to public administration and the accelerated expansion of public administration to international dimensions.”
Whatever the hindrances, it is obvious that they must be removed in the over-all interest of the effective working of an organization. To end, it may be mentioned that some thinkers welcome the lack of coordination.
Harlan Cleveland, through his ‘tension theory’ suggests that there should be deliberate efforts to create conflicts in jurisdiction and programme so that major issues are discussed clearly for better results.
Miss Follett has advanced the idea of ‘constructive’ conflict recognizing thereby that conflicts should be regarded as a normal process in any activity of an organization so that socially valuable differences get clarity and discussed for the benefit of all concerned.