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They say the 21st century is the century of science and technology. Today, we do almost all our work with the help of science and technology. In modern times, the clean growth of a country cannot be imagined without science and technology. We all know the value of science and technology in our daily lives. Different inventions of science have made our everyday life simple and stress-free as well. On the other hand, technology has taught us the modern way of life.  

On the other hand, the economic growth of a country also depends on the growth of science and technology. According to recent data, our country, India, has the third largest scientific workforce in the world. India is progressively developing in the field of science and technology. The Indian Space Research Organization has its own launch satellite among all the other countries in the world. After independence, India launched a number of satellites in the space of its own efforts. On November 5, 2013, India again proved its power in the field of science and technology by launching Mangalyaan on Mars. The former Indian president APJ Abdul Kalam has worked himself out at DRDO ( Defence Research and Development Organization) and ISRO and tried to develop India in the field of science and technology.  

         

With the advancement of science and technology, some deadly weapons have been developed and modern wars of different nations have become more devastating and destructive. Nuclear energy has become a real threat to this world in modern times. With this in mind, the great scientist Einstein noted that the Fourth World War would be fought with stones or trees evacuated. In fact, he was afraid that the inventions of deadly weapons of war would one day end up in human civilization. But if we use science and technology for the well-being of the human being, it will develop us in the fastest way.       

Cells are of different shapes and sizes. Different shapes and sizes are due to different functions performed by different cells. The smallest cell is Mycoplasma (PPLO-Pleuro pneumonia like organims). It is about 10 micrometer in size. The largest cells is an egg cell of ostrich. The longest cell is the nerve cell. The largest cell in the human body is female ovum. Smallest cell in the human body is male gametes, that is, sperm.

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Advantages of sexual reproduction:

1. In sexual reproduction, more variations are produced. Thus, it ensures survival of species in a population.

2. The new formed individual has characteristics of both the parents.

3. Variations are more viable in sexual mode than in asexual one. This is because in asexual reproduction, DNA has to function inside the inherited cellular apparatus

The word Laterite is derived from Latin word ‘later’ which means ‘brick’. They are mainly tropical based reason’s soil where we have heavy seasonal rainfall and high temperature. Because of that, it promotes leaching of the soil. Due to rain, lime and silica are always leached away. Laterite soils are said to farraginous aluminous rock. They are formed by decomposition. 

Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature. The rocks are completely leached out having a high proportion of iron and aluminium as residue. The Laterite soils in India are not very fertile and are can be only used with sufficient manure and fertilizers dosage. They are coarse in texture and poor in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and urea. These soils are red in colour as it is mixed with iron oxides. They are good for cultivation of Cashewnuts and Tapioca. These soils are also used as building materials in India in the form of bricks. Even we can used it for other agriculture needs like cotton, rice, wheat, pulses, tea and coffee with the help of suitable fertilizers. 

Laterite soils in India are mainly found in Eastern Orissa, South Western Ghats, plains of Malabar Coast, Maharashtra and some part of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Meghalaya, and West Bengal.

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The French Revolution was a milestone episode in modern European history. It began in the year 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. All through that time, residents of France were levelling and restructuring their country’s administrative landscape, uprooting centuries-old foundations such as sheer monarchy and the feudal system. The turmoil was caused due to extensive discontent with the monarchy and the pitiable economic policies of King Louis XVI. 

The French Revolution played a critical role in shaping modern nations by showing its goals and at times disintegrated into a chaotic bloodbath. The social and political structure of France was completely changed due to this revolution. It came to an end to the French feudalism, monarchy and took political power from the Catholic Church. It brought new ideas to Europe including liberty and freedom for the commoner as well as the abolishment of slavery and the rights of women. These new ideas continued to influence Europe and helped to shape many of Europe’s modern-day governments. 

Before the French Revolution, the people of France were divided into social groups called “Estates.” The First Estate included the clergy (church leaders), the Second Estate included the nobles, and the Third Estate. Most of the taxes were used to be paid by third estate people, while the nobility lived lives of luxury and got all the high-ranking jobs. Many of the new political ideas and alliances of the French Revolution were formed in political clubs. They were called Jacobin Club, the Feuillants, the Cordeliers, and the Pantheon Club.     

In India, the arid soil is mainly found in parts of Western Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab and extends up to the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. They are one of the most prevalent soil orders in the world. It is also called desert soil in some places.

 Following are the important features of arid soil

1. Mostly, the arid soil is red and brown in colour and sandy in texture. 

2. By nature, it is saline. Owing to the presence of dry climate and high temperature, evaporation occurs at a faster rate. This soil lacks humus and moisture. 

3. Due to high calcium content, the bottom horizon of this soil is occupied by ‘Kankar’ which restricts the infiltration of water through the soil. 

4. The soils contain a considerable amount of soluble salts. Due to dry climate and absence of vegetation, it also contains a very low percentage of organic matter.

5. The soil is alkaline in nature as there is no rainfall to wash soluble salts.

6. These soils are very infertile, but with proper fertilizers and irrigation, the drought resistant and salt tolerant dry crops such as barley, cotton, wheat, millets, maize, pulses, etc., can be grown.

7. After proper irrigation, these soil become cultivable as has been in the case of western Rajasthan.

8. Arid soils are most characterized by their water deficiencies. Most arid soils contain sufficient amounts of water to support plant growth for no more than 90 consecutive days.

9. Arid soils typically contain high levels of calcium carbonates, gypsum, as well as sodium.

10. This soil is usually not suited for major crop production owing partial moisture content and accumulated soluble salts. However, if properly managed and irrigated, it can become productive. We have some notable soils in the world which are classified as arid soils, nevertheless are notable for their unique fertility.