Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

The process where an acetyl group gets added to a compound because of its replacement with that of an active Hydrogen atom is called acetylation. Here, the acetyl group consisting of carbonyl atoms or a carbon atom bonded in double pairs with oxygen, as well as a CH₃ or methyl group on end, gets attached to yield CH₃CO is often represented as ‘R.’ 

Such a reaction takes place because of a good leaving group (R) and a needy nucleophile (NP) having extra electrons, to form acetate. The chemical representation of the acetylation reaction is: 

In the above reaction, we can see the hydrogen atom from the alcohol group undergoes replacement from the acetyl group to form an ester. 

What Is Acetylation?

There can be many examples of strong acetylation reactions that can enhance the general understanding of the acetylation. For example: In the acetylation of glucose, the simple bonding between the acetyl group with the extra electrons present in nucleophilic Oxygen, helps in easy substitution of the Hydrogen Atoms present in the phenol group.

Since the acetyl group would require a robust leaving group to undergo acetylation, it would need a strong acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride to undergo successful acetylation. Used across multiple synthesis procedures like that of aspirin, proteins, and other useful medicinal purposes, the acetylation process widely occurs in nature and artificially in laboratories. 

One such example of the acetylation of salicylic acid is mentioned below: 

Mechanism of Acetylation of Salicylic Acid

In the above example, you can see how acetylation takes place in salicylic acid in an acidic medium. Let’s have a closer look.

The acetylation of salicylic acid gets facilitated because of the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid, that enables the detachment process of the acetate ion present in the agent acetic anhydride. Once the acetate ion establishes a stable bond with that of the nucleophilic oxygen atom (because of its free electrons) present in the salicylic acid, it undergoes dehydrogenation (the process of removal of a Hydrogen atom) in the process to yield acetic acid and aspirin. 

Acetylation with Acetic Acid

Another smooth and strong acetylation reaction of alcohols and phenols would be the use of zirconium oxide and boron as a catalyst. The process of acetylation occurs when the alcohols are introduced to acetic acid, at high temperature, with toluene as a solvent, generating an acetylated compound that takes heavily from the strength of borated zirconia. 

The chemical process involved is: 

ROH (CH₃COOH as a catalyst) (Toluene, 110℃) ➝ CH₃COOR + H₂O

Acetylation of Amines

There are several methods that allow acetylation of amines with the usage of several amines using catalytic acetic acid, ethyl/butyl acetate for the acylating agent. Used generally in the formation of formamides at lower room temperatures (20°C), the chemical reaction involved in the process of synthesis for broad-spectrum amines is: 

There are several other examples of acetylation reactions, including:

N-acetylation of amines from N,N-dimethylacetamide

Dimethylacetamide can act as an efficient storehouse for the synthesis of acetyl and dimethylamine gas. It can deliver easy acetylation of several amines when treated at 120-125°C and can serve as an alternative to the rest of the acetylation equations. The reaction would look like: 

N – Alpha – Acetyltransferases

These intermediate compounds enable mediation in a variety of acetylation reactions. Named after the standard variables used in the transfer of molecules, these compounds are known to occur inside cells for regulation protein formation.

The Histone Acetylation and Deacetylation

Here the proteins that copy the DNA to heal the damaged genetic material need to be engineered via acetylation, which helps in understanding the energy and accuracy of the copying of genes. Used in lysine and other gene regulation activities, these chemical reactions may include removing acetyl groups from an equation. 

What Kind of a Reaction is Acetylation?

These reactions fall under the ethanoylation under the IUPAC standards and regulations. It often comprises introducing an acetyl functional group in an acidic base to undergo replacement of the hydroxyl group. The opposite chemical reaction that results in the complete removal of the acetyl group in an equation, otherwise called as deacetylation, also comes under the same IUPAC nomenclature. These are instrumental in drug biotransformation that involves the ways the body processes and excretes drugs, with the help of acetylation reaction. It can also be helpful to conduct acetyltransferases for the treatment of any cancer or other autoimmune diseases.

The acid definition is given as any hydrogen that contains a substance capable of donating a proton (a hydrogen ion) to the other substance. A base is an ion or molecule that is able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.

Usually, the acidic substances are identified with their sour taste. Basically, an acid is a molecule that can donate an H+ ion and also can remain energetically favorable after a loss of H+ ion. Acids are much known to turn blue litmus into the red.

On the other side, bases are characterized by a slippery texture and a bitter taste. A base that is dissolved in water is known as an alkali. When these substances react chemically with acids, they further yield salts. Besides, the bases are much known to turn red litmus into blue.

Acid-Base Theories 

To define acids and bases, three alternative hypotheses have been proposed. The Arrhenius theory, the Bronsted-Lowry theory, and the Lewis theory of acids and bases are among these hypotheses. This subsection provides a brief overview of each of these theories. There are three hypotheses that can be used to define acids and bases.

1. “An acid generates H+ ions in a solution, whereas a base generates an  OH– ion in its solution,” according to the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases.

2. “An acid is a proton donor, while a base is a proton acceptor,” according to the Bronsted-Lowry theory.

3. Finally, the Lewis definition of acids and bases depicts acids and bases as “electron-pair acceptors” and “electron-pair donors,” respectively.
   

Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases 

According to the Arrhenius theory, acid is a chemical that when dissolved in water produces the H+ ion. It raises the H+ ion concentration in the solution. The base is a chemical that dissolves in an aqueous solution and ionises the OH– ion. Thus the solution contains a high concentration of OH– ions.

In an aqueous solution, Arrhenius acid increases the concentration of protons or H+ ions. 

Arrhenius Acids 

Definition of acids according to Arrhenius: Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist, first presented the Arrhenius hypothesis of acids and bases in 1884. He proposed categorising certain substances as acids or bases depending on the type of ions generated when they were combined with water.

Hydrochloric acid in the water, for example. As stated below, HCl undergoes a dissociation reaction to produce H+ and Cl– ions. The formation of hydronium ions raises the concentration of  H+ ions.

HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

HCl (aq) + H₂O(l) → H₃O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Arrhenius Base

A substrate called an Arrhenius base raises the concentration of hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution. The extremely soluble sodium hydroxide molecule in water, which dissociates to generate sodium ion and hydroxide ion, is an Arrhenius base example.

To increase the concentration of hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution, NaOH entirely dissolves to give hydroxide ions and sodium ions.

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq).

Bronsted Theory of Acids and Bases 

Bronsted Lowry Acid

An acid is defined as a donor of protons by the Bronsted-Lowry theory.

According to this hypothesis, a base is a proton acceptor (or an  H+ ion acceptor).

Bronsted acids dissociate to release protons, resulting in a higher concentration of  H+ ions in the solution.

Acid ⇌ Proton + Conjugate base

Bronsted Lowry Base 

Bronsted bases, on the other hand, take protons from the solvent water to produce hydroxide ions.

The capacity to explain the acidic or basic character of ionic species is one advantage of the Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases.

This theory has a significant flaw in that it does not explain how chemicals that lack hydrogen, such as BF₃ and AlCl₃, display acidic characteristics.

Base + Proton ⇌ Conjugate acid

Strong Bronsted-Lowry acids are those that have a strong inclination to donate a proton but have a weak conjugate base.

Weak Bronsted-Lowry acids have a slight tendency to give a proton, while their conjugate base is strong.

Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases

Lewis acid: An acid, according to Lewis’ definition, is a species with an empty orbital and hence the ability to take an electron pair.

A Lewis base is a species that has a single pair of electrons and hence can operate as an electron donor.

The hydrogen atom is not included in this theory’s description of acids and bases.

Lewis acids have electrophilic properties, while Lewis bases have nucleophilic properties.

Cu²⁺, BF₃, and Fe³⁺ are examples of Lewis acids.  F–, NH₃, and C₂H₄ are examples of Lewis bases (ethylene).

A Lewis acid absorbs an electron pair from a Lewis base, resulting in the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. Lewis adduct is the name given to the resultant chemical.

This notion has the advantage of allowing various substances to be classified as acids or bases. However, it provides little information about the acid and base’s strength.

One of the theory’s flaws is that it doesn’t account for acid-base reactions that don’t involve the development of a coordinate covalent bond.

pH of Acids and Bases

To find the numeric value of the acidity or basicity level of a substance, the pH scale (pH stands for ‘potential of hydrogen’) can be used. Here, the pH scale is the most common and trusted procedure to measure how acidic or basic a substance is. Also, a pH scale measure can differ from 0 to 14, where 14 is the most basic, and 0 is the most acidic a substance can be.

The other way to check if a substance is acidic or basic is by using a litmus paper. There exist two types of litmus paper available, used to identify the acids and bases. They are the red litmus paper and the blue litmus paper. The blue litmus paper changes red under acidic conditions, whereas the red litmus paper turns blue under alkaline or basic conditions.

Properties of Acids and Bases

Properties of Acids

• Acids are good conductors of electricity.

• They are corrosive in nature.

• When reacted with metals, acid substances produce hydrogen gas.

• Always, their pH values are less than 7.

• Acids are sour-tasting substances.

• Examples of acids are Hydrochloric acid [HCl], Sulfuric acid [H₂SO₄], Acetic acid [CH₃COOH], and more.

Properties of Bases

Some of the properties, such as a bitter taste, are owned by all bases. The bases also feel slippery. You can dream about what slippery soap looks like, and this is a foundation. Also, bases conduct electricity when immersed in water because they consist of charged particles in the solution.

• Bases are found to have a soapy texture when we touch them.

• When dissolved in water, these substances release hydroxide ions (OH– ions) 

• Bases act as good conductors of electricity in their aqueous solutions

• Always, the pH values corresponding to the bases are greater than 7.

• Bases are bitter-tasting substances, having the ability to turn red litmus paper into blue.

• Examples can be given as milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)₂], Sodium Hydroxide [NaOH], Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂], and more.
  

Neutral Substances

These are the substances, which have no properties of either acid or base, which has a similar amount of hydroxyl ions and hydrogen ions, and they do not modify the color of the litmus surface.

• Neutral substances do not display any acidic or basic characteristics.

• Their pH values approximately 7.

• Neutral substances have no effect on blue or red litmus paper.

• pH of pure water is exactly 7.

• Examples are Common salt (NaCl), Water, and more.
  

Uses of Acids and Bases

Various uses of acids and bases can be listed as follows:

Uses of Acids

• Vinegar, which is a diluted solution of acetic acid, has different household applications. It is used primarily as a food preservative.

• Citric acid is an integral part of orange juice and lemon juice. It is also used as a food preservative.

• Sulfuric acid is more widely used in batteries. Commonly, the batteries used to start automobile engines contain this acid.

• The industrial production of dyes, explosives, paints, and fertilizers involves the use of nitric acid and sulfuric acid.

• Phosphoric acid is a primary ingredient in various soft drinks.
  

Uses of Bases

• The manufacturing of paper and soap involves the use of sodium hydroxide. Also, NaOH is used in the manufacturing of rayon.

• Ca(OH)₂, which is also called calcium hydroxide or slaked lime, is used to manufacture the bleaching powder.

• Dry mixes used in decoration or painting are made using a limited amount of calcium hydroxide.

• Magnesium hydroxide, also called the milk of magnesia, is most commonly used as a laxative. It also reduces if there is any excess acidity in the human stomach and is, thus, used as an antacid substance.

• Ammonium hydroxide is an important reagent that is used in laboratories.

• Any excess acidity in soils is neutralized by employing the slaked lime.

What are Aldehydes?

Aldehyde definition or the aldehyde meaning can be given as the members of an organic chemical compounds class, represented by the general structural formula as R-CHO. R can be a hydrocarbon or hydrogen radical, which is substituted or unsubstituted.

Many aldehydes are flammable liquids and volatile, where at normal room temperature from vapor in the explosive concentrations. Explosion and fire precautions must be most rigorous in the lower members of the aldehyde family case. The safeguards concerning irritant properties must also be most extensive for the lower members and those with either an unsaturated or substituted chain.

Naturally Occurring Aldehydes

The most common functional group in the oxygen-containing organic compounds isolated from the biological sources is the carbonyl group. In common names, one of the two suffixes may indicate the presence of a carbonyl group in a molecule. We use the suffix ‘-al’ if the carbonyl compound is an aldehyde. Else, we use the suffix ‘-one’ if the carbonyl compound is a ketone. For example, retinal is an aldehyde that is required for vision. The first part of the name shows that this compound is present in the retina, whereas the suffix tells us it is an aldehyde. The other example of a common name is alpha ionone, which is a fragrant ketone responsible for the scent of irises, used in perfumes.

Carbonyl groups are there in some steroids. For example, an oral contraceptive and methandrostenolone, the synthetic steroids norethindrone, and an anabolic steroid contain a carbonyl group.

Let us look at the structures of a few naturally occurring aldehydes, which are given below.

[]

General Properties of Aldehydes

Except for formaldehyde, a gas at room temperature, the most common aldehydes, and ketones are liquid at ordinary temperatures. The lower molecular mass aldehydes contain a sharp, rather unpleasant smell, whereas the higher molecular mass aldehydes and ketones have pleasant smelling. In fact, a few ketones are used in the perfumery, and some aromatic aldehydes, which are obtained from natural sources, have a fragrance that is very pleasant.

[]

As aldehydes and ketones have polar carbonyl groups, there is molecular association because of the stronger dipole-dipole interactions between the opposite ends of the dipoles. Therefore, both aldehydes and ketones’ boiling points are higher than those of non-polar alkanes and weakly polar ethers having comparable molecular masses. The boiling points of both aldehydes and ketones are lower than the alcohols of comparable molecular masses because of the absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. For example, the following compounds contain a molecular mass of around 60, whereas their boiling points are quite different.

[]

The lower aldehydes and ketones like methanal, propanone, and ethanol are miscible with water in all proportions because they are able to form hydrogen bonds with water.

[]

The water solubility decreases sharply with an increase in molecular mass because of the increase in the length of a non-polar alkyl chain. However, all the aldehydes and ketones are soluble in organic solvents such as benzene ether, benzene, and more.

Uses of Aldehydes

Aldehydes are essential intermediates in manufacturing plasticizers, resins, dyes, and solvents. They are used in industries including food, textile, rubber, leather, plastics, chemical, and healthcare. The higher aliphatic aldehydes and the aromatic aldehydes are used in the manufacturing of essences and perfumes.

Aldehydes are majorly used in the manufacturing of acetic acid. It is also used to manufacture peracetic acid, ethyl acetate, pyridine derivatives, dyes, perfumes, synthetic flavouring agents, and plastics. The formaldehyde has an extensive range of uses that is related to both its germicidal and solvents properties. It is also used in plastics production.

Formaldehyde is a powerful germicide, antiseptic, fungicide and preservative, that can be used to disinfectant inanimate objects. Simultaneously, benzaldehyde is used in organic synthesis, primarily in the manufacturing of rubber accelerators and as a synthetic flavouring agent in food items. It is also used to manufacture perfumes, gasoline additives, plasticizers, and the synthesis of amino acids and flavourings.

Common Reactions

Let us look at the main and important reactions that fall under the concept,  Aldehydes.

Aldehydes are highly reactive, which can participate in many reactions. The important reactions from the industrial perspective are given as follows.

(a) Condensations. As an example, to prepare plasticizers and polyols,

(b) Reduction to form alcohol, especially “oxo-alcohols”.

Considering the biological perspective, the important reactions involve the addition of nucleophiles to the formal carbon in the formation of the hemiacetals (structures of aldose sugars) and imine (which is oxidative deamination).

This is one of the important common reactions to be discussed besides others.

The formal group can be reduced readily to a primary alcohol (−CH₂OH). This conversion is accomplished typically by catalytic hydrogenation either directly or by the transfer of hydrogenation. Also, stoichiometric reductions are popular because they can be affected by sodium borohydride.

There are many such reactions that are used to define aldehydes, where the reduction is one of them.

Alum is an inorganic compound composed of Water molecules, Aluminum, other Metal than Aluminium, and Sulphates. Alum is a double salt in the hydrated form. Alum exists in different forms: Potash Alum, Soda Alum, ammonium Alum, and chrome Alum. The general chemical formula for Alum is XAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O.

Definition

We can define Alum as an inorganic compound that is made up of Water molecules, Sulphates and Aluminium. It is a hydrated form of a double salt.

This compound exists in different forms like Potash Alum, Ammonium Alum, Chrome Alum, Soda Alum. Alum has a general chemical formula, it is XAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O.

Types

There are different types of Alum including:

1. Potash Alum – It is also known as Potassium Alum. The common name of Potash Alum is fitkari. The chemical formula for Potash Alum is KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O. Its chemical name is Potassium Aluminium Sulphate. The common Alum is Potash Alum or Potassium Alum.

The molar mass of the Potash Alum is 258.192 g/mol. It exists in a white crystal form. It smells like Metallic Water. It is also commonly known as white Alum.

2. Soda Alum – It is also known as sodium Alum. Its common name is SAS. The chemical formula for sodium Alum is NaAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O. Its chemical name is sodium Aluminium Sulphate. The molar mass of the sodium Alum is 458.28 g/mol. It exists in a white crystal form. It smells like Metallic Water.

3. Ammonium Alum – It is also known as ammonium Sulphate Alum. Its common name is AAS. The chemical formula for Potash Alum is NH₃Al(SO₄)₂·12H₂O. Its chemical name is ammonium Aluminium Sulphate. The molar mass of the ammonium Alum is 132.14 g/mol. It exists in a white crystal form. It smells like Metallic Water.

4. Chrome Alum –  It is also known as chromium Alum. Its common abbreviation for chromium Alum is CAS. The chemical formula for Potash Alum is KCr(SO₄)₂·12H₂O. Its chemical name is chromium Aluminium Sulphate. The molar mass of the chromium Alum is 283.22 g/mol. It exists in a purple crystal form. It smells like Metallic Water.

5. Selenate Alum – In this type of the Alum selenium takes the place of the sulphur. The anion present in this form of Alum is selenate in place of Sulphate. These Alums possess the property of strong oxidizing agents. The molecular formula for selenate Alum is Al₂O₁₂Se₃. The molecular mass of the selenate Alum is 482.9 g/mol.

Alum is available both offline and online. Alum offline is generally available at grocery shops and medical stores. Alum Online is available on different e-commerce websites. Alums are generally sold by their common names like white fitkari, red fitkari, and white Alum stones or red Alum stones. Alums possess the property of anti-inflammatory agents. It is used in the gargling process to reduce teeth gum inflammation and pain.

Properties of Alum

• Alums are highly soluble in Water.

• These compounds are sweet in taste.

• They generally crystallize in the regular octahedral form.

• The Alum crystals get liquified when heated.

• Alums generally exist in the form of a white and transparent crystalline form.

• Its boiling point is around 200 degrees celsius.

• Its melting point is 92.5degrees celsius.

• Its density is 1.725 g/cm³.

• They are highly soluble in Water.

• They are sweet in taste.

• Their density is 1.725g/cm³

• Their melting point is 92.5° Celsius.

• Their boiling point is around 200° Celsius.

• They generally crystallize in a regular octahedral form.

• The Alum crystals liquify when they are heated.

Alum Water Treatment 

Alum Water treatment is generally carried to treat the polluted Water. These compounds act as a coagulant. It is used in the Coagulation-Flocculation process of polluted Water. It is a chemical Water treatment technique typically applied prior to sedimentation and filtration to enhance the ability of a treatment process to remove particles.

Coagulation – it destabilizes the charges of the particles. Coagulants with charges opposite to those of the suspended solids are added to the Water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-settable solids such as clay and organic substances.

[ Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.18H_{2}O + 6HCO^{3-} rightarrow 2Al(OH)_{3} + 6CO_{2} +18H_{2} + 3SO_{4}^{-2} ]

Once the charge is neutralized, the small-suspended particles are capable of sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process are called microflocs and are still too small to be visible to the naked eye.

We use Alum to treat the polluted Water mainly. These compounds can act as a coagulant and can be used in the Coagulation-Flocculation process to treat contaminated Water.

In other words, it is a chemical Water treatment technique done before the sedimentation and filtration process to strengthen the proficiency of the treatment and its ability to remove polluted and dirty particles.

We used two terms in the explanation of this treatment, they are:

Coagulation: This is the destabilization performed on the charges of the particles. Coagulants with charges that are opposite to that of the suspended solids are added to the Water. We stabilize and neutralize the negative charges in the non-settable solids like clay and other organic substances.

Flocculation: This is the process where a chemical coagulant is added to the Water to stimulate bonding between different types of particles. This leads to the creation of larger aggregates that can separate easily.

This is the chemical equation for them:

[ Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.18H_{2}O + 6HCO^{3-} rightarrow 2Al(OH)_{3} + 6CO_{2} +18H_{2} + 3SO_{4}^{-2} ]

Once this charge is neutralized, it allows the minuscule and suspended particles to stick together, whereas the slightly larger particles (microflocs) are still too small for the naked eye to see.

Uses of Alum

• It is used in the pickling and baking process.

• It is used in the tanning process of leather.

• It is used in the Coagulation and Flocculation process of Water treatment.

• It is used as an acidulating agent in cooking.

• It is used as a drying agent in a textile company.

• It is used as an antiseptic agent.

• We use it in the baking and picking process.

• We use it for the Flocculation and Coagulation process during the Water treatment.

• We use it as a drying agent in textiles companies.

• We use it as an antiseptic agent.

• We use it as an acidulating agent in the cooking process.

• We had it to tan leather.

Ammonia is a colourless and foul-smelling gas which is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen. It is a simple and stable compound of both these elements and acts as a starting material to produce several nitrogen compounds. It is also amongst the most commonly present hydrides in the atmosphere. The amount of ammonia in the atmosphere is developed mostly because of the bacterial decomposition that is released from the nitrogen-rich elements from plants and animals. 

Azane is the IUPAC name of ammonia. The ammonia chemical formula is NH3. Ammonia is present all around us and we are all exposed to a lower concentration of it in our day to day activities. In this article, we will study the properties and preparation of ammonia and nitric acid, the uses of ammonia, ammonium carbonate uses, and the properties of ammonia.

Preparation Of Ammonia

Smaller quantities of ammonia are present in the air and soil because of the decay of the nitrogenous organic matter. To produce ammonia on a small scale, ammonium salts and caustic soda are made to react with each other.

2NH4Cl  +  Ca(OH)2    →      2NH3 +  2H2O +  CaCl2

For a large scale production, Haber’s process is used. The steps that are involved in Haber’s process are:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3 (g)

Nitrogen and hydrogen are used in the form of raw materials for this reaction. The impurities for the gases get removed by a process known as scrubbing.

After this process of scrubbing, the gases are combined and then passed through a compressor. Then the mixture is compressed under a 200 atm pressure.

Then the compressed gases are passed to a converter in which the gases are heated up at a temperature of 450°C and 200 atm pressure. The nitrogen then tends to react with the hydrogen and forms ammonia, however, just about 15% of the total gas is formed.

The mixture of ammonia, nitrogen, and hydrogen is then removed from the converter and cooled wherein it tends to liquefy in the tank and then collected.

[]

Physical Properties of Ammonia

Chemical Properties of Ammonia

1. Ammonia is highly soluble in water. The NH3 aqueous solution is a weak base since OH– ions get formed.

NH3 + H2O →  N4+ + OH–

2. Ammonium salts get formed when ammonia reacts with an acid.

ZnSO4 + 2NH4OH (g) →  Zn(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4

Uses of Ammonia

1. The liquid ammonia includes being used as a refrigerant.

2. The ammonia gas uses include the manufacturing of urea which is excellent nitrogen fertilizer.

3. The ammonia solution uses include removing grease since it has cleansing properties.

Nitric Acid

Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in the starting of the 20th century had developed a process wherein ammonia was used for obtaining nitric acid. Due to the development of nitric acid, it had helped the Germans in World War I for making explosives and not importing it from other countries such as Chile. The chemical formula of nitric acid is denoted by HNO3.

Preparation of Nitric Acid

For the small scale preparation, nitric acid is made when concentrated sulphuric acid is heated along with NaNO3 or KNO3.

NaNO3 + H2SO4    →        NaHSO4 + HNO3

For the large scale preparations of nitric acid, the Ostwald process is used.

In this process, ammonia undergoes catalytic oxidation through oxygen present in the atmosphere. This happens in the presence of Pt/Rh in the form of a catalyst at 500 K temperature and a pressure of 9 bars.

4NH3 + 5O2     →     4NO(g) + 6H2O

The nitric oxide obtained is then reacted with the oxygen to form NO2.

2NO + O2 →    2NO2(g)

The NO2 formed is then made to dissolve in H2O which forms HNO3.

3NO2 (g) + H2O(l)    →    2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

Properties of HNO3

1. Nitric acid is colourless in nature.

2. The boiling point of liquid nitric acid is 84.1°C and it tends to freeze at -41.55 °C and forms a white solid.

3. It is a strong acid that dissociates and forms nitrate ion and hydronium.

HNO3(aq) +H2O (l)     →    H3O+(aq) + NO3–(aq)

4. Nitric acid in its concentrated state tends to act as a strong oxidising state

Cu + 4HNO3   →  Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O

Anabolism defines the set of biochemical reactions that construct molecules from smaller components. Anabolic results are endergonic, meaning they require an input of energy to progress and aren’t spontaneous. Anabolic and catabolic reactions are a couple with catabolism providing the energy for anabolism. The hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) powers many anabolic processes. In general, condensation and reduction reactions are the mechanisms behind anabolism.

Anabolic reactions require energy. The result where ATP changes to ADP supplies energy for this metabolism. Cells can combine anabolic reactions with catabolic reactions that release energy to make an efficient energy cycle. The catabolic reactions transform chemical fuels into cellular energy, which is then used to initiate the energy-requiring anabolic responses. ATP, a high energy molecule, couple’s anabolism by the release of free energy. This energy does not come through the breakage of phosphate bonds; instead, it is releasing from the hydration of the phosphate group.

Anabolism and Catabolism

Anabolism definition in biology is often viewed as a group of metabolic processes during which the synthesis of complex molecules is initiated by energy released through catabolism. These complex molecules are produced through a scientific method from small and straightforward precursors. This reaction can begin with simple precursors of molecules. It also ends with reasonably complex products like sugar, specific lipids, or even DNA. It has a particularly compact body. The increased complexity of the products of anabolic reactions also means they are more energy-rich than their simple precursors.

Anabolic reactions constitute different processes. That is a relatively few types of raw materials used to synthesize a wide variety of end products, increasing cellular size, complexity, or both. Anabolic processes are liable for cell differentiation and increases in body size. Bone mineralization and muscle mass are attributed to these processes. These processes produce proteins, peptides, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids. Anabolism comprises the living cells like membranes and chromosomes, as specialized products of specific sorts of cells, like enzymes, antibodies, hormones, and neurotransmitters.

Anabolism Examples

Anabolic reactions are those that build complex molecules from simple ones. Cells use these processes to make polymers, grow tissue, and repair damage. For example:

Glycerol Reacts with Fatty Acids to Make Lipids:

CH2OHCH(OH)CH2OH + C17H35COOH → CH2OHCH(OH)CH2OOCC17H35 

Simple Sugars Combine to Form Disaccharides and Water:

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 → C12H22O11 + H2O

Amino Acids Join Together to Form Dipeptides:

NH2CHRCOOH + NH2CHRCOOH → NH2CHRCONHCHRCOOH + H2O 

Carbon Dioxide and Water React to Form Glucose and Oxygen in Photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Anabolic hormones stimulate anabolic processes. Examples of anabolic hormones include insulin, which promotes glucose absorption, and anabolic steroids, which stimulate muscle growth. Anabolic exercise is anaerobic exercise, such as weightlifting, which also builds muscle strength and mass.

Functions of anabolism

Anabolic processes build organs and tissues. These processes produce growth and differentiation of cells.  It also creates an increase in body size, a process that involves the synthesis of complex molecules. Examples of anabolic processes include the expansion and mineralization of bone and increases in muscle mass.

Anabolic Hormones

Endocrinologists have traditionally classified hormones as anabolic or catabolic, counting on which a part of metabolism they stimulate. The typical anabolic hormones are the anabolic steroids, which stimulate protein synthesis and muscle growth.

Photosynthetic carbohydrate synthesis

This process in plants creates certain bacteria that produces glucose, cellulose, starch, lipids, and proteins from CO2. It uses the energy produced from the light-driven reactions of photosynthesis and creates the precursors to those large molecules via carbon assimilation within the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle.

All amino acids are formed from intermediates within the catabolic processes of glycolysis: the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Glycolysis, glucose 6-phosphate is a precursor for histidine; 3-phosphoglycerate is a precursor for glycine and cysteine; phosphoryl pyruvate, combined with the 3-phosphoglycerate-derivative erythrose 4-phosphate, forms tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine. Pyruvate is a precursor for alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine. From the acid cycle, α-ketoglutarate is converted into glutamate and subsequently glutamine, proline, and arginine; and oxaloacetate is converted into aspartate and subsequently asparagine, methionine, threonine, and lysine.

During periods of high blood sugar, glucose 6-phosphate from glycolysis is diverted to the glycogen-storing pathway. It is changed to glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase and then to UDP-glucose by UTP–glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen synthase adds this UDP-glucose to a glycogen chain.

Glucagon is traditionally a catabolic hormone but also stimulates the anabolic process of gluconeogenesis by the liver, and to a lesser extent the kidney cortex and intestines, during starvation to prevent low blood sugar. It is the process of converting pyruvate into glucose.