Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

When the extra secretion of acid takes place in the stomach, it causes on-off pain, bloating sensation, low appetite and many other health-related problems. Overproduction of acids can even lead to critical diseases like the formation of stomach ulcers. So, how to control the acids?

 

Antacids are prescribed to people who suffer from acidity problems. In the year 1970, acidity treatment was started using antacids. In the following content, you will get more familiar with: what are antacids, what do antacids do, antacid medicines, etc.

 

What is Antacid Medicine?

The category of medicines that neutralizes stomach acids are known as antacids. These tablets contain certain ingredients like calcium, sodium bicarbonate, aluminium and magnesium which act like alkalis or bases to oppose acid in the stomach and make pH neutral.

 

pH refers to the evaluation of hydrogen ion concentration in any solution, and it shows how alkaline or acidic those solutions are. The pH scale has a lower limit of one and an upper limit of 14. If the pH of a solution is seven, it is neutral, if more than seven it is alkaline and less than seven is acidic. Typically, the pH of gastric acid is between the range of 1.5 and 3.5.

 

The Following Table depicts the Commonly used Antacids

 

Now that you have understood what an antacid tablet is, let us move further with antacid components.

 

Components of Antacid Medicines

Sodium Bicarbonate

NaHCO₃: It is a short-acting and weak antacid. Though it u’s a harmless household remedy, the content of sodium present in it is disadvantageous. Doctors generally do not recommend “baking soda” or “bicarb”, but it is a commonly used ingredient of several patent medicines. Bicarbonate holds an effervescent trait that illustrates the commercial existence of pain-killer/antacid blends like Bromo-SeltzerTM and Alka-SeltzerTM. This component reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) of the stomach to yield carbon dioxide (CO2) that gets absorbed fast but occasionally evokes a satisfying burp.

 

Systemic alkalosis (imbalance of the human body’s pH level) may be a result of bicarbonate overuse. People, who have high blood pressure and are prescribed not to have much sodium, should avoid bicarbonate.

 

Magnesium Hydroxide  

Mg(OH)2 : It is popularly called as milk of magnesia. Similar to magnesium sulphate and magnesium citrate, magnesium hydroxide is also a good laxative. Manufacturers mix this component with the aluminium hydroxide to control the diarrhoea effect it causes. However, the price of medicine increases and aluminium hydroxide decreases the benefit of antacid.

 

Magnesium hydroxide itself does not get absorbed in the intestine. Instead, when it interacts with the stomach acid; it releases magnesium chloride which is absorbed. Mg (magnesium) holds a lot of functions in cells of the human body. However, it has a harmful effect if levels of Mg increase in blood. Also, people with renal failure must avoid magnesium.

 

Aluminium Hydroxide

Al(OH)3: In comparison to the previous component, this one is weak and has slow action on the human body. Moreover, neutralizing power varies among commercial medicines.

 

Aluminium may safeguard the lining of the stomach from the harmful effects of irritants like alcohol. Al(OH)3 has other applications as well. It helps in binding phosphate in gut lumen to yield insoluble aluminium phosphate. This product is useful for kidney failure when serum phosphate goes high abnormally and for people who tend to form kidney stones that contain phosphate.

 

Prolonged use of this component may cause brain damage, metabolic bone conditions like osteoporosis and osteomalacia, and risk of causing fractures, particularly in malnourished people.

 

Calcium Carbonate 

CaCO3 : Chalk is the common name for calcium carbonate and is the most abundantly available antacid. It can neutralize acid entirely in the stomach. However, it may not be the right choice for daily use.

 

One major side effect of antacids is that gastric acid secretion may rebound after taking this medicine. Commercial antacid tablets that contain calcium have Titralac TM and TumsTM, and their dosage should not go above 3 g each day.

 

Besides the primary components, there are some extra components, such as:

• Peppermint flavouring

• Antiflatulent

• Alginic acid

 

How do Antacids work?

All antacid tablets can work in two manners.

1. Antacids cover the esophagus surface with a preventive layer against acids of the stomach.

2. They release a gel on the surface of the stomach that helps to stop the leakage of acid to the food pipe. This way, it can prevent heartburn symptoms.

 

Next, let us discuss what are antacids used for?

 

Use of Antacids

Apart from heartburn, the primary uses of antacids are to provide relief from Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), indigestion or dyspepsia, belching, bloating, and feeling of discomfort in the gut or stomach. By counteracting stomach acids, these medicines can help to cure the feeling of burning in the throat or chest due to acid reflux, bitter taste in the mouth, a sensation of pain while lying down, regurgitation and continuing dry cough. These acid medicines can be merged with other tablets well to provide relief from heartburn symptoms.

 

What is GERD and Acid Reflux?

Acid reflux takes place when stomach contents reach up in the oesophagus. It is also termed gastroesophageal reflux or acid regurgitation. If you experience acid reflux symptoms more than two times a week, you may be suffering from GERD.

 

Moreover, GERD can sometimes lead to difficulty in swallowing food and also breathing conditions like asthma.

 

Did You know?

The National Institute of Diabetes
and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) suggest that 20% of US citizens are affected with GERD, and if it is not treated, can cause serious issues.

 

When a person is diagnosed with GERD, medical practitioners usually advise making changes in eating habits and lifestyle. Besides antacids, doctors also prescribe two different classes of medicines like H2 receptor blockers and proton pump inhibitors.

 

Some Widely used H2 Receptor Blockers are:

 

Note: The selling of Tagamet across the world was most massive until ranitidine (Zantac) was introduced.

 

Some Commonly used Proton Pump Inhibitors are:

• Lansoprazole (Prevacid 24 HR)

• Omeprazole (Prilosec)

• Pantoprazole sodium (Protonix)

• Rabeprazole sodium (Aciphex)

 

Other Than the Earlier mentioned Disorders, a Few Antacids can help to cure unrelated Health Problems Like:

 

By now, you must have got familiar with the use of antacids. However, you must keep in mind that all medicines come with side effects. The following section is related to the side effects of antacids.

 

Antacids Side Effects

The ingredients present in antacid tablets are responsible for the unwanted side effects. However, few product combinations show side effects that invalidate each other. For example, magnesium can cause diarrhea and aluminium can cause constipation, so a tablet containing these two components has a more neutral effect on the bowel.

 

Generally, if you take antacids as directed by a physician or the way mentioned on the tablet strip, you will experience comparatively fewer effects. Over usage of the medicines along with prolonged usage without prescription, they may have side effects.

 

Common Side Effects of Antacids

1. Constipation

2. Aluminium toxicity

3. Low levels of blood phosphate

4. Osteomalacia

5. Kidney stones

6. Nausea

7. Alkalosis

8. High magnesium level in blood

9. Increase in blood pressure, etc.

 

Furthermore, if high doses of antacids are taken for an extended period, it can cause a problem termed as an acid rebound. This condition occurs when the stomach releases more acids after the consumption of drinks and food.

 

Sometimes people take medicines for acidity issues on their own. However, you must always take drugs after consultation with a doctor as only they will understand which is the antacid medicine that can cure your problem.

 

Precautions

Most people are not adversely affected by antacids. People with specific medical issues, on the other hand, should see their doctors before using antacids containing aluminium hydroxide and magnesium carbonate. People with heart failure, for example, may be subjected to sodium limitations to reduce fluid accumulation. However, antacids are frequently high in salt. Before using antacids, these persons should consult with their doctor. After using antacids, those with kidney failure may experience an aluminium accumulation. Aluminium poisoning may result as a result of this. Electrolyte balance issues are common in people with renal failure. All antacids include electrolytes, which may exacerbate electrolyte balance issues. Before giving your child antacids, consult with their doctor. Because children seldom have symptoms of high stomach acid, their symptoms might be due to another issue.

 

How and When to take Antacids

Check the package or leaflet for directions on how much and how often to take the antacid. This depends on the medication you’re taking. Antacids should be taken when you have symptoms or suspect you may have them soon – for most people, the ideal time to take them is with or shortly after meals, and immediately before going to bed. Keep in mind that children’s dosages may be lower than those of adults. Antacids should be taken with meals or shortly after eating because this is when you are most likely to experience indigestion or heartburn. If taken with meals, the medicine’s impact may last longer. Antacids can affect the effectiveness of other medications, so avoid taking them within 2 to 4 hours of having an antacid.

 

Hyperacidity

To improve digestion, the stomach secretes Hydrochloric Acid, a digestive liquid that breaks down food particles into their simplest form. Hyperacidity is a condition that occurs when there is an excess of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Our stomach consists of acid or HCL- Hydrochloric acid, the amount of acid in our stomach is pH 4. This means that there is a highly acidic environment within, which is also required for humans because any germs that reach our stomach, die in the acidic environment, therefore acidity is important. However, in certain circumstances, this acidic nature exceeds the required amount, and the acidity begins to pain. Following are some of the signs and symptoms of Hyperacidity:

 

Hyperacidity Cure

• Avoid meals that are very salty, fatty, sour, or spicy. Maintain a balanced, healthful diet.

• It is also essential to exercise for at least half an hour since it promotes digestion and bowel motility, hence reducing hyperacidity. Walking is the greatest option.

• Workouts that stimulate the abdominal muscles, such as crunches, should be avoided.

• Heavy lifting should be avoided by people who have hyperacidity.

Treatment of Acidity with the use of Histamine

Histamine is a significant advancement in the treatment of hyperacidity. In the stomach, histamine acts as a stimulant for the release of pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Cimetidine is a medication that works by limiting the effects of histamine. It inhibited the interaction between histamine and receptors, resulting in a reduction in acid release.

Do It Yourself

1. What is the other name for magnesium hydroxide?

a) sugar b) milk of magnesia c) chalk d) baking soda

 

2. Is the following sentence true or false?

Osteoporosis is a side effect of antacids.

 

3. Classify the following medicines like antacids, proton pump inhibitors and H2 receptor blockers.

a) Sodium bicarbonate b) Nizatidine c) Aluminium hydroxide d) Omeprazole

 

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Chromatography is a technique that is used for the separation, purification, and identification of the constituents of a mixture for qualitative and quantitative analysis. The term was given by the Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett. Different chromatographic processes are used to differentiate the size, binding affinities, charge, and other properties. It is an excellent technique used for separation used in different branches of science. 

Different Types of Chromatography

There are different types of chromatography techniques used having different instrumentation and working principles. There are four main types of separation techniques based on molecular characteristics and interaction. The different mechanisms used in different techniques of chromatography are based on ion exchange, partition, surface adsorption, and size exclusion. Some chromatography techniques are based on the stationary bed, including column, thin layer, and paper chromatography. 

Different Applications of Chromatography

Chromatography has many different applications in different sectors and industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemical, and food industries. For confirming that samples tend to contain only a limited amount of pollutants like the pesticides in soil and PCBs in the waste oil, the environmental laboratories tend to make extensive usage of the chromatography technique. 

The Environmental Protection Agency developed the chromatography process which is used to analyze the water used for drinking and to monitor the quality of air. This is an approach by many pharmaceutical manufacturers for preparing larger amounts of the products that have higher purity and for testing the extracted compounds for the traces of contaminants. Several other applications of the chromatography technique are explained below. 

Let us discuss the uses of chromatography in detail in different industries and the chromatography examples in real life.

Applications of Chromatography in the Pharmaceutical 

The chromatography technique is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for analyzing and identifying the presence of any sorts of trace amounts of elements and chemicals in the given sample. Another important application of chromatography in the pharmaceutical industry is for the separation of chemical compounds depending on their molecular masses and also sometimes based on the elements which constitute them. The chromatography technique also plays a vital role in the development of newer drugs. For example, any presence of impurities and several other unknown compounds are detected in the sample of drugs by using chromatography. Also, the drug purity sample is analyzed by using this technique of chromatography.

Applications of Chromatography in the Food Industry

The technique of chromatography plays a crucial role in the food industry for the determination of the shelf life of several food substances through helping in the analysis of the point wherein the food tends to spoil. Also, the presence of chemical additives in the food items is determined by using this technique. The food sample’s nutritional value is also determined with the help of chromatography techniques.

Applications of Chromatography in the Chemical Industry

Chromatography technique tends to play a crucial role when it comes to the chemical industry in testing the water samples for purity. The air sample testing to determine their purity can also be accomplished with the help of chromatography techniques in the chemical industry. The presence of the toxic contaminants in pesticides and oils can be easily determined by using specialized techniques of chromatography, for example, HPLC and GC. The most notable contaminants are polychlorinated biphenyls that are denoted as PCBs.Chromatography techniques are also applied in several applications related to the Life Sciences.

Applications of Chromatography in Molecular Biology

When it comes to Molecular Biology, the studies of metabolomics and proteomics often tend to involve the usage of several hyphenated techniques of chromatography, out of which the most notable is EC-LC-MS. The nucleic acid research is known for making extensive usage of these chromatographic techniques. A special kind of chromatography technique is called HPLC which is widely used in protein separation applications. This kind of chromatography technique is used in the purification of enzymes, insulin purification, and plasma fractionation.

Summary

Many different kinds of chromatography techniques are widely used in the chemical industry. The environmental research laboratories tend to make extensive use of different chromatography techniques to search for the trace amounts of the toxins present in the waste oil like PCBs. Such kinds of techniques are also used while looking for pesticides like DDT in the groundwater. The chromatography technique is also employed by the Environmental Protection Agency for checking the drinking water for purity and also monitoring the quality of air. Many pharmaceutical companies have been using the techniques of chromatography for both processing huge amounts of highly pure products and also for testing the extracted substances for tracing the contaminants. Apart from all these applications, it is also the technique of chromatography that is also used extensively in the field of Biotechnology, fuel industry, and in several biochemical processes.

Natural sweeteners such as fructose and sucrose give sweetness to a substance, but they also contain calories that may be harmful to humans when taken in excess quantities. On the other hand, artificial sweeteners are the substances used as substitutes for natural sugar (sucrose). They consist of fewer calories. These are many times sweeter compared to regular sugar, so they are also known as intense sweeteners. A few of them are so sweet that maltodextrin or dextrose is added to reduce the intense sweetness of artificial sweetening agents. Generally, these sweetening agents are obtained from synthetic sugar substitutes. But these sweeteners are also formed from natural substances, including herbs or sugar itself.

 

Artificial sweetener is the most attractive substitute for sugar because it does not add more calories to our diet. This can be used directly in processed food like dairy products, puddings, candy, baked goods, jams, soft drinks, and other various foods and beverages. We can also use it after mixing with starch-based sweeteners.

 

How Does an Artificial Sweetening Agent Work?

In order to make a sweetening agent work properly, the sweetener should be soluble in water, and it should readily bind to the receptor molecule lying on the surface of the tongue. Actually, the receptor is connected with a G- protein, and when the sweetener binds to the receptor, the G- protein begins to dissociate, which in turn activates a nearby enzyme and triggers an event sequence in which the signals are transmitted to and are interpreted by the brain – the interaction between the sweetener and receptor results for the sweetness of an artificial sweetening agent.

 

In general, the surface of our tongue is covered by many taste buds, each containing several taste receptors that detect different flavors. When we eat, our taste receptors encounter food molecules.

 

A perfect fit between a molecule and the receptor sends a signal to our brain, allowing us to identify the taste. For instance, the sugar molecule fits perfectly into our taste receptor for sweetness, allowing the brain to identify the taste of sweetness.

 

Artificial sweetener molecules are enough likely to sugar molecules to fit on the sweetness receptor. However, generally, they are much different from sugar for our body in breaking them down into calories. Like this, they provide a sweet taste with no added calories.

 

Just a handful of artificial sweeteners have a structure that can break down the body into calories. Because only very little amounts of artificial sweeteners are required to make foods taste sweet, we consume virtually no calories.

 

Most Common Artificial Sweeteners

Some of the most common Artificial sweeteners are listed below.

1. Saccharin

Saccharin was discovered in 1879 and considered to be the oldest non-nutritive and the most common sweetener. Sucrose is nearly 300 times less sweet than Saccharin, but it exhibits a bitter aftertaste. It cannot be used in products where food baking is necessary as it becomes unstable when undergone to heat. But it can be used to sweeten drinks, candies, and toothpaste.

The structure of Saccharin will be as,

 

2. Aspartame

Aspartame was discovered in 1879, which is one of the most common sweeteners, and it was found to be about 200 times sweeter than sugar. Aspartame is a dipeptide methyl ester, and it is named as aspartyl phenylalanine-1-methyl ester. It is a commonly used tabletop sweetener and one of the advantages of aspartame is that it is also used in a wide variety of foods. When heated, it breaks down into amino acids and loses its sweetness. So it cannot be used for baked foods. It is only used in soft drinks and cold foods as it becomes unstable at cooking temperature.

 

The structure of Aspartame will be as,

 

3. Acesulfame Potassium

Acesulfame potassium is a common artificial sweetener and is otherwise known as acesulfame K and is 200 times sweeter than table sugar. It suits cooking, baking, and is sold under the brand names of Sunset or Sweet One.

 

4. Advantame

This sweetener is 20,000 times sweeter to table sugar and suits for cooking, baking.

 

Advantages of Artificial Sweeteners

Fewer advantages of Artificial sweeteners are listed below.

Sugar is a common sweetener and plays an essential role in tooth decay and cavities. Substituting less sugar with the artificial sweeteners, one may be able to reduce these effects on your teeth.

Loss or maintenance of weight is the key reason why people start using artificial sweeteners. The Mayo Clinic says that every one gram of sugar contains four calories. So by replacing the regular sugar with a calorie-free sweetener, we can reduce the number of calories that we have each day.

For people with diabetes, eating too much (if any) sugar is a real concern. Artificial sweeteners are a safe choice because they do not raise blood sugar levels. However, it is important to consult your doctor about sugar alternatives.

Common Artificial Sweeteners  Which are Allowed for Use in the United States And/or in the European Union are:

Aspartame is sold in the brand names of NutraSweet, Equal, or Sugar Twin. It is known to be much sweeter than the regular table sugar. 

Acesulfame Potassium is another common artificial sweetener which is also known as acesulfame K and this is 200 times sweeter than table sugar. It suits cooking, baking, and is sold under the brand names of Sunset or Sweet One.

Advantame, this sweetener is 20,000 times sweeter to table sugar and suits for cooking, baking.

What is an Atomic Orbital?

Atomic orbitals are mathematical functions that give knowledge into the wave nature of electrons (or sets of electrons) that exist around the cores of atoms. In the fields of quantum mechanics and atomic theory, these mathematical functions are frequently utilized to decide the likelihood of finding an electron (having a place with an atom) in a particular region around the nucleus of the atom. 

Note that the term ‘atomic orbital’ can likewise be utilized to allude to the physical space or physical region around an atom’s nucleus in which the likelihood of a particular electron being available is maximum. The presence of an electron in such a region is anticipated by the mathematical form of the atomic orbital. 

Note that the qualities of each atomic orbital are reliant upon the estimations of the following quantum numbers: 

1. The principal quantum number (noted by the symbol ‘n’) 

2. The azimuthal quantum number, otherwise called the orbital precise energy quantum number (signified by the symbol ‘l’) 

3. The magnetic quantum number (noted by the symbol ‘ml‘) 

Besides, it very well may be noticed that each atomic orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. In totally involved atomic orbitals, for example, the atomic orbitals containing two electrons, every one of the electrons has an equal and opposite turn when contrasted with the other. 

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Different Atomic Orbitals and the Relationship Between Different Quantum Numbers which Describe Them 

The name of an atomic orbital is normally expressed as far as a combination of the primary quantum number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l). The straightforward names of the atomic orbitals and the comparing estimation of the azimuthal quantum number are given below. 

1. The s orbital, in which the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number equals to 0. 

2. The p orbital, in which the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number equals to 1. 

3. The d orbital, in which the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number equals to 2. 

4. The f orbital, in which the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number equals to 3. 

5. The g orbital, in which the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number equals to 4. 

6. The h orbital, in which the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number equals to 5. 

It very well may be noticed that the next atomic orbitals can be named one after another in order, precluding the letter ‘j’ (which is done in light of the fact that specific dialects don’t recognize the letters ‘j’ and ‘I’). Subsequently, when l=6, the name of the atomic orbital will be ‘I’ and when l=7, the name of the atomic orbital will be ‘k’.

When naming a particular atomic orbital, the estimation of the essential quantum number must be added as a prefix to the sequential description of the azimuthal quantum number. Note that the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number is subject to the estimation of the important quantum number. For some random estimation of ‘n’, the estimation of ‘l’ can range from zero to (n-1). For example, if the estimation of ‘n’ is equal to 3, the potential estimations of ‘l’, which range from zero to (3-1), are 0, 1, and 2. The names of these atomic orbitals would then be 3s for n=3, l=0; 3p for n=3, l=1; and 3d for n=3 and l=2. It can likewise be noticed that it isn’t feasible for the 3f orbital to exist since that would require the estimation of ‘n’ and ‘l’ both to be equal to 3, which is absurd since the estimation of the azimuthal quantum number should consistently be lower than that of the key quantum number.

Table of All the Possible Atomic Orbitals in Which the value of ‘n’ Ranges from 0 – 5

Barium Bromide is metallic alkaline in nature; however, it never arises in pure form. It is because barium bromide reacts promptly with air. Along with it, barium bromide reacts with oxygen, sulfur, and carbon to form barium compounds. The barium bromide is an inorganic compound. This chemical compound is also called barium bromide anhydrous or barium (2+) dibromide. BaBr2 is the chemical formula of an inorganic compound that is Barium Bromide.

Barium Bromide – Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Properties:

• Molecular Weight: The molecular mass of barium bromide is 297.14 gram per mole.

• Melting Point: The melting point of barium bromide is high. The inorganic compound melts at 857-degree Celsius.

• Boiling Point: The boiling point of barium bromide is 1835-degree Celsius.

• Density: The density of the barium bromide formula is 4.78 g/cm3.

• Solubility: The inorganic compound BaBr2 dissolves at 75- degrees Celsius in its own water-of-hydration. Generally, it dissolves before the decomposing of the anhydrate. 

Chemical Properties:

• The barium bromide compound is a white crystalline powder.

• BaBr2 compound contains three units that are bonded covalently.

• The exact mass of this inorganic compound is 297.74 grams per mole. However, the monoisotopic mass of BaBr2 is 297.742 gram per mole. 

• The number of hydrogen bond donors in the barium bromide formula is equivalent to 0.

• The number of hydrogen bond acceptors in barium bromide is equivalent to 2.

The above picture states two bromine ions in barium bromide have one negative charge each, and barium has a+2 charge. The charge on the atoms is according to its ability to donate or gain the electrons. 

Reactions of Barium Bromide

BaBr2 + SO42- →  BaSO4 + 2Br–

BaBr2 + C2O42- →  BaC2O4 + 2Br–

It is a white odourless powder.

BaBr2 + F–
→  BaF2 + 2Br–

BaF2 is a colourless solid that occurs in nature.

BaBr2 + PO43- → Ba3 (PO4)2 + 2Br–

Barium Bromide – How is the Compound Formed?

The barium bromide formula can be prepared from barium sulfide or carbonate. 

For instance;

BaS + 2HBr -> BaBr2 + H2S

BaCO3 + 2HBr -> BaBr2 + CO2 + H2O

Barium bromide can also be crystallized from its solution. By heating to 120- degrees Celsius, BaBr2.2H2O forms the anhydrate and produces the formula of barium bromide. 

The barium bromide formula also refers to barium dibromide formula, which acts as salt when it is in aqueous form. In lead chloride motif, barium bromide salt crystallizes and results in the formation of deliquescent orthorhombic white crystals. 

How is Barium Bromide Used in Chemistry?

• You can use BaBr2 to form different and various chemicals that are used in photography. 

• In the previous years,  BaBr2 was used for radium purification. The process is well known as fractional crystallization. The process was developed by Marie Curie. 

• The inorganic compound is widely used in the manufacture of other bromides.

• Barium bromide is highly used in the preparation of phosphorus.

There are many uses of barium bromide; however, its intake is injurious to health. The anhydrous barium bromide taken with several other water-soluble salts of barium is considered as toxic.

The above table tells the bond strength and type of bond present in barium carbonate and barium oxalate compounds. For instance, in barium oxalate, hydrogen bonding is present along with covalent and molecular bonding. In barium carbonate an asymmetric covalent bond is present.

Barium Bromide – Health Hazards

There are several known hazards of using barium bromide. Barium in the inorganic compound can block the inflow of intracellular potassium. As a result, there is a transfer of potassium from the extracellular compartment to intracellular. There is a reduction in the resting membrane potential that unexcited the muscle fibers electrically. Consequently, it can cause paralysis. 

When barium bromide is swallowed inside the body, it can cause severe poisoning to humans. 

Bromine is a robust oxidizing agent. From the water, it can release the free oxygen radicals existing in mucous membranes. The free radicals released can act as potent oxidizers, and thus it can cause tissue damage. 

Additionally, the formation of bromic acids can influence the outcome in secondary irritation. It can also cause bromism that impacts the central nervous system. 

Barium Bromide – Safety

As barium bromide contains barium an alkaline metal inside its composition. It is better to be safe. Include only a small part of barium bromide or other barium compounds to your diet that is soluble in water.

The simplest aromatic aldehyde, which consists of a benzene ring with a formyl (-CHO) substituent, is termed benzaldehyde (C₆H₅CHO). This organic chemical compound has several industrial applications, including dyes, flavouring agents, perfumes and the manufacturing of several other organic compounds. Found naturally in glycoside amygdalin, this aromatic aldehyde is known for its distinct, almond oil-like taste and odour. 

The molecular formula of this compound is C₇H₆O, and its IUPAC name is benzenecarbaldehyde. It is also referred to as several other names, including benzenedicarboxaldehyde, phenylmethanal, or benzoic aldehyde. It appears as a clear liquid with a smell like almonds. It is miscible with volatile oils, ether, and alcohol. It is denser than and thus only slightly soluble in water and has a solubility of 3 g/L.

Discovery of Benzaldehyde 

Benzaldehyde occurs in a variety of natural items such as almonds or cherries. The isolation of benzaldehyde from bitter almonds goes back to 1803 and is credited to a French pharmacist Martrès. It was later studied by the German chemists Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler, who first synthesised it successfully in the 1830s. This led to the establishment of the structural theory of organic chemistry.

Structure of Benzaldehyde

The structure of benzaldehyde consists of a benzene ring substituted with an aldehyde unit. This formyl unit has one atom of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The number of benzaldehyde sigma bonds is 14, formed by the head-to-head overlapping of atomic orbitals. 

Preparation of Benzaldehyde

This simple aromatic aldehyde can be derived from a variety of natural sources.

 

It can also be manufactured synthetically from toluene which is found in crude oil, for industrial usage. This is done by a series of chemical reactions in which toluene reacts with chlorine. This leads to the formation of benzal chloride, which can be further treated with water to form benzaldehyde. 

Benzaldehyde can also be synthesised by the oxidation of benzyl alcohol and carbonylation of benzene. Alkaline hydrolysis of benzal chloride also yields benzaldehyde. 

Properties of Benzaldehyde

Uses of Benzaldehyde

Benzaldehyde is an aromatic compound with a distinct odour resembling almonds. It can be extracted from a variety of natural sources and can also be synthesised by liquid phase chlorination of toluene. There is no chemical distinction between these two types of benzaldehyde.

Benzaldehyde is a widely used compound in the chemical industry. It also finds usage in several other items. The most common applications of benzaldehyde that make it such an important compound are listed below- 

1. The most common use of benzaldehyde is to provide almond flavouring to items. It is used in food and beverages to provide the scent of almonds.  Various scented products also use benzaldehyde as an additive for having a distinct odour.

2. The industrial usage of benzaldehyde is that it acts as an intermediate in the production of several organic compounds. It is a precursor to various chemical additives, plastics, and pharmaceutical products.

3. Another significant use of the odour of benzaldehyde is as a bee repellent. It is used to draw the bees away from a honeycomb in order to extract the honey from these structures. 

4. Some cosmetic products and personal care products also contain benzaldehyde.

5. Benzaldehyde is also used in the production of dyes (acridine and aniline dyes), soaps, and perfumes.

6. It is also used in cakes and baked goods as almond extract. Benzaldehyde is also used in additives like antibacterial and antifungal preservatives.

7. It is an intermediary product in the formation of compounds like cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, etc.

8. It is used as a solvent for oils, resins, ethers, etc. 

The flavouring and fragrance of benzaldehyde are the reason for its widespread use in several industries.

Storage of Benzaldehyde

Benzaldehyde is usually stable but should be stored as per the recommended conditions. It should be properly stored in a sealed container away from heat and light. It should be kept away from reactive substances such as acids and reducing agents. It is also recommended to store this compound under nitrogen.