Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

Phenolic acids, which are also called s phenol carboxylic acids, are the aromatic acids that hold a carboxyl functional group and a phenolic ring.

Phenolic acids and Flavonoids constitute one of the most widespread groups of plant phenolics. Due to their significance in human health and plants, a deeper understanding of the flavonoid concentration and biological activities can suggest their potential as therapeutic agents, including predicting and monitoring the medicinal herbs’ quality as well, would be useful.

Thus, these compounds contain at least one hydroxy group, one carboxyl group, and one aromatic ring. Salicylic acid is also given as one of the simplest phenolic acids.

Structure of Salicylic Acid

The structure of salicylic acid, which is given as a common phenolic acid, can be illustrated as follows.

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Some other important naturally occurring phenolic acids can be given as hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxybenzoic acids are derived from the benzoic acid molecules, which are non-phenolic, whereas the Hydroxycinnamic acids are derived from the acid molecules, which are non-phenolic cinnamic.

Occurrences of Phenolic Acid

Phenolic acids are found in several plant species. Their content present in the dried fruits can be high.

Natural phenols in the horse grams (which is Macrotyloma uniflorum) are mostly given as phenolic acids, which are namely p-hydroxybenzoic, 3,4-dihydroxy benzoic, vanillic, p-coumaric, caffeic, ferulic, sinapinic acids, and syringic.

Phenolic acids are also found in the species of mushroom Basidiomycetes. It is a part of the humic substances, which are given as the major organic constituents of soil humus.

Several phenolic acids are also found in human urine.

Uses of Phenolic Acid

• Phenolic compounds are the ones among the phytochemicals that are present in cereals that promote health. Despite their antioxidant properties, phenolic compounds receive more attention. The most common types of phenolic compounds found in whole grains are given as flavonoids and phenolic acids.

• Phenolic acids are the most abundant compounds found in cereals, and the flavonoids also exist in grains. The total flavonoid and phenolic content of 20 genotypes of very small grain cereals, including durum wheat, bread wheat, rye, hulless oat, and hull-less barley, were analyzed. These phytochemicals consisted of the highest content in hull-less barley, followed by the rye, durum wheat, bread wheat, and hulless oat.

• The role of gut microbiota in bio-transformation of the phytochemicals, along with the phenolic acid, is widely accepted, causing the circulation of food-derived metabolites excreted in the urine.

Medicinal Uses of Phenol

Phenol was also used for skin cleaning and itching reducing. Phenol is also used in drugs such as Chloraseptic to treat pharyngitis as an oral analgesic or anaesthetic. Phenol and its related compounds are also used in the diagnosis of a surgical ingrown toenail, a procedure called phenolization.

Deciding the Acidic Nature of Phenols

Acidic strength is always directly proportional to the conjugate base’s stability, which means the more stable is the conjugate base and more acidic is the compound. And, in phenols, once H+ leaves Phenol, a negative charge is acquired by the Oxygen atom. Hence, there is no problem with that as the Oxygen is much more electronegative, containing a value of 3.5. Therefore, it won’t raise any issues if it contains a negative charge on it.

Secondly, the most important thing is given as resonance, as the negative charge on the Oxygen atom and π bonds of the Carbon present in the ring are in conjugation, which is given as the basis of resonance. And, resonance lessens oxygen’s negative charge by pulling its negative charge towards itself as in a benzene ring. Also, carbon atoms can effectively hold a negative charge where the negative charge is circulated throughout the ring and on oxygen as well, which lessens the compound’s energy adding to its stability.

Natural Occurrences of Phenolic Acids

Let us understand a few of the natural occurrences of the phenolic acids as listed below:

• Many of the dried fruits hold phenolic acids.

• Phenolic acids are also found in the horse grams.

• The Basidiomycetes species of the mushroom is much known to hold these organic compounds.

• These aromatic acids are also found in the soil humus. 

• Finally, human urine also comprises some phenolic acids.

Why is Acetic Acid Said to Be Stronger Than Phenol?

Acetic acid (with the chemical form, CH3-CO-OH) is defined as a typical carboxylic acid. In carboxylic acids, the OH hydrogen release as a proton is much facilitated by the electron-withdrawing carbonyl group. There is no such type of feature available in phenol, and it majorly depends on the stability of resultant phenoxide ions to release OH proton.

Therefore, acetic acid is described as a much stronger acid than the other.

Examples of Phenolic Acids

A few of the examples of phenolic acids can be listed as follows:

Phosphorus triiodide is an inorganic compound composed of one phosphorus and three iodine atoms. Phosphorus forms two types of halides, phosphorus trihalides, and phosphorus pentahalides. The covalency of phosphorus in phosphorus trihalides is three and five in pentahalides. In this article, we will discuss the phosphorus triiodide structure PI3.

The chemical properties of phosphorus triiodide PI3 depend upon the electronic configuration and hybridization of the phosphorus.  The uses of phosphorus PI3 are different from the other phosphorus trihalide, due to its chemical and physical properties. The chemical representation of phosphorus triiodide can be answered by the same question as what is the formula for phosphorus triiodide.

What is the Chemical Formula for Phosphorus Triiodide?

The most common question asked while studying harmful phosphorus compounds in inorganic chemistry is that what is the formula for phosphorus triiodide? The answer to this question is PI3. 

Phosphorus Triiodide Structure PI3

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The structure of phosphorus triiodide contains three single sigma bonds between phosphorus and iodine and one lone pair. The bond length is 243 pico meters and the bond angle between the two bonds is 102 degrees celsius. Due to the repulsion between the lone pair and bond pair the angle is less than tetrahedral. Phosphorus triiodide structure PI3 represents the distorted tetrahedral shape. 

Preparation of Phosphorus Triiodide

Phosphorus triiodide is prepared by the free elements union method. Generally, iodine is mixed with the solution of white phosphorus in the neutral medium. Carbon disulfide is added in the preparation reaction of phosphorus triiodide. It provides a neutral medium for the reaction.

P4 + 6I2 → 4PI3

Another method for the preparation of phosphorus triiodide is the conversion of other phosphorus halides like phosphorus chloride and phosphorus bromide to the phosphorus triiodide by the addition of an iodide source (hydrogen iodide or metal iodide). The source of the iodine used in this reaction can be organic or inorganic.

PCl3 + 3HI → PI3 + 3HCl

Properties of Phosphorus Triiodide

Physical Properties of Phosphorus Triiodide PI3

• Phosphorus triiodide exists in solid form.

• It is generally found in the red colour.

• It is corrosive in nature.

• It acts as an irritant compound.

• The molecular weight of the phosphorus triiodide is 411.6872 g/mol.

• The density of phosphorus triiodide is 4.18 g/cm3.

• The boiling point of phosphorus triiodide is 200 degrees celsius.

• The melting point of the phosphorus triiodide is 61.2 degrees celsius.

Chemical Properties of Phosphorus Triiodide PI3

• The dipole moment of Phosphorus triiodide is nearly zero.

• The P-I bond is weak in nature.

• Phosphorus triiodide is an unstable molecule. Therefore, reactive in nature.

• Phosphorus triiodide reacts violently with water.

PI3 + 3H2O → H3PO3 + 3HI

• Phosphorus triiodide is a good reducing agent in nature.

• The standard enthalpy of formation of phosphorus triiodide is -46 KJ/mol.

• The NMR chemical shift for phosphorus triiodide is 178 ppm.

• Phosphorus triiodide reacts with methyl iodide in the presence of mercury and forms a complex (Trimethyl Phosphine Mercury) as a product.

PI3 + 3CH3I + Hg → [(CH3)3PHgI2]

Uses of Phosphorus Triiodide

The uses of phosphorus PI3 are discussed below:

• Phosphorus triiodide is widely used in organic chemistry branch laboratories for converting alkane halide to alkane iodide.

• It is used as various substitution reactions like the substitution of a hydroxyl group from alcohol.

• Phosphorus triiodide is used in the manufacturing of phosphoric acid.

• Phosphorus triiodide is used in the manufacturing of idopyrazines.

Did You Know? 

• Phosphorus triiodide can act as a nucleophile. Due to the presence of one lone pair, it can donate this pair to the electron-deficient compounds.

• PI3  can also act as an electrophile. Due to the presence of an empty d orbital, it can accept electrons from electron-rich compounds and expands its valency to 5.

• PI3  is highly toxic in nature.

• PI3  violently reacts with water and produces large amounts of heat.

• PI3 causes irritation to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system.

Anything that occupies space and has some mass is called matter. And every matter in this universe consists of physical and chemical properties which change when it undergoes reaction. These  properties of matter are either chemical or physical and  further, these physical properties are either extensive or intensive. It is important to study the properties of substances to understand their nature. Every substance reacts differently as all of them consist of different physical properties. There are different ways to observe the physical and chemical properties of the substances. For example, non metals have different ways of reacting towards acid from metals as the properties of metals and non-metals differ.

Properties of Substances

These properties are either intensive or extensive or they can be classified as physical or chemical. The examples of extensive properties are volume or mass depending on the amount of the measured matter. The examples of intensive properties are color or density which do not depend on the amount of matter. It is important to note that physical properties are both intensive or extensive properties. These can be estimated without controlling the chemical identity of the substances. The example of physical property can be explained with the help of  freezing water, when we freeze the water, it will still remain water , however, only the physical state will change. The other examples of physical properties can be measured or demonstrated by studying color, density, volume and mass of the substances. It only changes the physical state of the substance but doesn’t change the chemical composition of the substances. Some changes also include more than one type of change in their properties. For example, if we blend two fruits to make a juice. This change will include two types of physical changes as it will change the state of matter from solid to liquid and mixing of pieces of fruits. However, there is no chemical change involved here. Some of the other physical change includes: 

Physical and Chemical Properties

As we discussed, the physical properties are the properties which are either intensive or extensive. The intensive properties are not seen with the naked eyes while the extensive ones are easily observed. The intensive ones are color, density while the extensive properties are the volume , mass etc. The reaction involving any change in these extensive or intensive properties is called physical properties. These changes did not result in any change of the chemical composition unlike the chemical change. For example, the physical properties of soil changes include the texture, porosity, density etc. It gets affected in case of soil erosion. 

Similarly, the physical properties of  acid which are most likely to change when it undergoes any reaction are its sour taste, the change in its color (litmus paper). 

The chemical properties are referred to as that property which lead to the change in the chemical structure. The examples of chemical properties are the heat of combustion which is the energy released when a compound undergoes complete combustion (burning) with oxygen,  or Chemical stability which is determined if a compound will react with water or air as the stable chemical substance will not react. The chemical changes are the changes which lead to change in the chemical composition example, cooking, rusting etc. as they produce new chemical compounds.

Physical Properties of Non Metal

There is a significant difference between metal or non-metals. The appearance of metals and non metals differs due to their different physical properties. The intensive or extensive physical properties of the nonmetal determine its appearance and its reaction with other substances. These physical properties can be of great utility in some cases. For example, copper is used to make electrical wires as they are conductors and will allow the electricity to pass. However, you cannot use non-metal in this case as it will not allow the electricity to pass. The physical properties of non-metal also decides its utility like high-ionization energies, poor conductor of heat, low density, etc. 

Conclusion 

The physical properties can determine its application. The physical properties are extensive or intensive. The extensive ones volume, mass etc and the intensive ones are the density, etc. The change which leads to the change in the physical property without affecting the chemical property is called Physical change. The change which results in the change of the chemical composition or it leads to the formation of a new chemical compound is called chemical change. 

Have you ever thought about a substance so loaded with energy that had the same explosive effect as 20 million pounds of TNT? Now, imagine this material also to be a source of power that could be used, even in the present state of knowledge, to supply humanity’s energy needs long after the world’s resources of conventional fuels such as coal and petroleum have become exhausted. Adding to it is the materials, strange combinations of properties. Sometimes the material is as hard and brittle as window glass, and at the same time, it could be as soft and plastic as a lead. This material is called Plutonium. There must be some questions in your mind like, what is Plutonium? How is Pu element formed and produced? What are its properties? We will now try to answer all these questions one by one.

What is Plutonium?

Plutonium, also known as Pu element, is considered as the first human-made element to be produced in large enough amounts. It is a heavy metallic element (more than twice as dense as iron). When freshly prepared, its uncorroded surface has a bright, silvery appearance. While most metals are good conductors of electricity and heat, Plutonium is not. Its electrical conductivity (ability to conduct electricity) and its thermal conductivity (ability to conduct heat) are both exceptionally low.

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The image shows the position of the Pu element in the atomic table, where the Plutonium atomic number is 94.

Plutonium is a radioactive element that is not found in nature. Plutonium atomic number is 94, and its position in the Periodic Table shows that it is the sixth member in the series of elements called the “actinides,” of which actinium, atomic number 89, is the first member. Plutonium is also one of the “trans-uranium” elements since it has an atomic number higher than that of uranium (number 92).

Physical Properties of Plutonium

Perhaps the most unusual physical property of Plutonium is its occurrence in six different crystal structure forms or allotropes, each in a specific, well-defined temperature range. It is not uncommon for elements to have more than one allotrope, but Plutonium is the only one with as many as six. 

Chemical Properties of Plutonium

Plutonium is a highly reactive metal. It readily combines with oxygen to form plutonium dioxide (PUO2). Increasing the temperature of Plutonium exposed to ordinary air rapidly increases the oxidation rate. Therefore, the metal must be protected in some manner when it is heated. 

Now that you are familiar with the Pu element, we will look at some Plutonium uses.

Applications of Plutonium

When it comes to this element, plutonium uses are very limited. Only two out of the five isotopes have specific applications. The Plutonium uses include, producing energy on earth and in space, and nuclear weapons. Some of the general Plutonium uses are as follows.

• It acts as a source of energy to produce electricity.

• It is used in nuclear reactors, where it is used as fuels.

• It acts as a neutron source to calibrate neutron detection equipment.

• Plutonium has been used as a threshold detector for determining neutron energies.

Certain Facts About Plutonium

• During the second world war, Plutonium was used to make the nuclear bomb called “Fat Man”, which was used to bomb Nagasaki. The bomb nearly claimed the lives of 80000 people.

• Under certain conditions, Plutonium pyrophoricity gives it a glowing ember look.

• Plutonium is used to produce around one-third of the total energy produced in a nuclear power plant.

• For deep space missions, Plutonium is used as a vital source of power.

• The Primary fuel used in neutron reactors is Plutonium.

• The half-life of Plutonium-244 is about 82 million years.

• Plutonium emits gamma rays, neutrons, and beta particles.

Polymethyl methacrylate, or PMMA, is a transparent organic polymer that is used as an alternative to glass. It is a rigid plastic that can find its application in a variety of industries. This synthetic resin is formed by the polymerization of methyl methacrylate.

Also referred to as plexiglass or acrylic glass, PMMA is used because it is easy to shape, tough and cost-effective. It has the ability to keep a light beam reflected within the surface and is also resistant to UV radiation. Acrylic glass can be used in a variety of products, including car windows, aquariums, screens of digital devices etc.

Polymethyl Methacrylate Structure

PMMA is formed by the free radical polymerization of monomer methyl methacrylate. The polymethyl methacrylate structure is a vinyl polymer which is an ester of methacrylic acid (CH₂=C[CH₃]CO₂H). 

The pendant CH₃ groups hinder the crystalline packing of the polymer chains. Since they are not allowed to rotate freely around the C-C bond, the resulting structure is quite rigid.

Production of PMMA

It is produced from propylene which is derived from the refining of crude oil. The process of formation of methyl methacrylate polymer involves the following steps:

• Propylene reacts with benzene to form isopropylbenzene or cumene.

• Cumene gets oxidized to form cumene hydroperoxide.

• This reacts with an acid to form acetone. 

• Acetone forms methyl methacrylate (CH₂=C[CH₃]CO₂CH₃) in liquid form.

• The polymerization of this compound in the presence of free-radical initiators forms PMMA in solid form.

Polymethyl Methacrylate Uses

Acrylic plastic or PMMA finds its application in a variety of industries due to its properties, easy processing and cost-effectiveness. PMMA is processed by injection molding, compression molding, extrusion or casting.

The extensive polymethyl methacrylate uses are a result of its advantageous properties and adaptability. This transparent plastic is used in a lot of markets. Some of the most common applications of PMMA are discussed below:

Glass Substitute

Acrylic glass is used as a shatterproof alternative for windows and skylights. It is also commonly used in aquariums and aircraft canopies. A lot of hockey rinks also use PMMA. Illuminated sign boards that display advertisements or directions are also usually made up of PMMA.

Construction and Design

Windows, doors, panels, canopies etc., all use polymethyl methacrylate due to its excellent properties such as heat insulation and light transmission. The polymer may also be used in the construction of sinks, baths, knobs or tap tops. 

Automobile Industry

One of the most important industries that require PMMA is the transportation and automobile industries. From car windows to windshields, acrylic sheets can be found in a lot of spaces. It is used in the manufacturing of various automotive parts. The aviation and marine industry also require this polymer.  Car indicator covers and panels are also made using plexiglass. 

Healthcare Industry

PMMA polymer is also known as bone cement in the healthcare industry. It is used by orthopaedic surgeons for procedures like joint replacement or treating bone damages. It can also be used to fill in the gaps between bones. Optical fibres used for endoscopy also consist of PMMA.

Cosmetic Usage

PMMA has also found its usage in various beauty products and injectables. It is used in cosmetic procedures that treat ace, facial lines, wrinkles etc. 

Lamps and Lighting

The light-emitting potential, transparency and other such properties allow PMMA to be used in LED lights and lamps. You can find PMMA being used in street and traffic lights. It is manufactured in various colour options, which adds to its usability in lamps and other lighting devices.

Electronic Devices

Acrylic glass can be used in the display of various electronic equipment, including tv screens, laptops and smartphones. This is due to its properties, such as transmittance and high optical clarity.

Solar Devices

The application of polymethyl methacrylate PMMA in solar panels is a result of its UV stability and light transmission ability. It can also be used in the construction of greenhouses, aquariums and marine centres.  

Other products where this polymer finds its application include paint, furniture and

optical fibres used for telecommunication.

Advantages of PMMA

PMMA has several advantages over other polymers like polycarbonate (PC) and polystyrene etc. It doesn’t scratch easily or yellow over time. PMMA is used as an alternative to other transparent polymers in situations where extreme strength is not required.

Some of the advantages of PMMA include:

• Economical

• Resistance to weathering

• Various colouring options

• Tensile strength

• Easy to process and handle

• Versatility

• Biocompatibility

• UV Stability

• Durability

• Transmittance and better optical clarity

• Recyclable

• Polishability 

• BPA-free, non-toxic

In this content, you will find all important information about potassium bromide uses, its properties, and production. Potassium bromide is a chemical compound of the element potassium or K and bromine or Br₂. At room temperature, potassium reacts with bromine, and by synthesis, this compound is formed. The chemical equation of this reaction is 🡪 2 K + Br₂ = 2KBr. 

Potassium bromide has an immense contribution to medical science. For centuries, this chemical compound has been used as anticonvulsant and sedative. The following discussion is an in-depth discussion about KBr.

What is Potassium Bromide?

Now, the first question that can arise in your mind is “what is potassium bromide”. Thus, here is the answer-

KBr or Potassium bromide is an ionic salt, completely disassociated, and has a value of pH 7 in an aqueous solution. It is also known as Kalii bromidum, Tripotassium tribromide, and bromide salt of potassium. This salt can appear as colorless crystals, crystalline powder in white or white grains under standard temperature and pressure. Taste-wise, potassium bromide is pungent bitter with saline flavor. However, this bromide salt tastes sweet in dilute aqueous solutions.

However, if you can increase the concentrations gradually, KBr tastes bitter and eventually becomes salty. This concentration-wise change of taste occurs because of the characteristics of potassium ions. Notably, potassium bromide can irritate the mucous membrane of the gastric if consumed in high concentrations. Sometimes this may cause vomiting as a general effect of every potassium salt.

This compound is completely water-soluble. This means, when put into water, it can be quickly disassociated into individual ions and disappear. 

Structure of Potassium Bromide

Its structure is created by a single cation K⁺ and a single anion Br^–. The crystalline structure of this salt is precisely octahedral. This structure is formed by one potassium cation surrounded by six bromine anions and also vice versa. For common representation, the chemical structure of potassium bromide can be expressed as below-

()

Moreover, to understand the electron representations in the valence shell, you need to learn the Lewis structure. By this electron-dot diagram, you can understand the electron arrangement of individual atoms in a molecule. Also, this diagram can help you to understand how a single pair of electrons can exist inside a molecule. 

This way, it will be easy to understand the reaction between potassium cation and bromine anion, here is the Lewis dot structure of KBr^–

()

Till now, you learned some common characteristics of this ionic salt. Now, let us move forward to know the other properties of potassium bromide.

For your convenience, here are some physical properties of this salt in a nutshell-

Properties of Potassium Bromide

Potassium Bromide Reactions: It is a typical ionic salt that is completely dissociated in an aqueous solution at a pH of around 7. In the production of silver bromide for photographic films, this reaction is crucial. The following is the reaction:

KBr(aq) + AgNO₃(aq) → AgBr(s) + KNO₃(aq)

When bromide reacts with metal halides like copper (II) bromide in its aqueous state, it forms complexes:

2 KBr(aq) + CuBr₂(aq) → K₂[CuBr₄](aq)

Quiz

1. What Kind of Bonding Do You Find In Potassium Bromide?

Options:

1. Covalent

2. Metallic

3. Ionic

4. None of the above

2. What Is The Charge of Bromine Ion and Potassium ion, Respectively?

Options:

1. +1, -1

2. -1, +1

3. 0, 0

4. -2, -1

3. How Can You Reduce The Halide Anion From a Solution?

Options:

1. By adding silver ion

2. By adding bromine ion

3. By adding potassium ion

4. None of the above

4. What Type of Electrolyte Is Potassium Bromide?

Options:

1. Weak

2. Not an electrolyte

3. Strong

4. None of these options

5. How Can Bromine Be Separated from Potassium Bromide Solution?

Options:

1. Chlorine water

2. Potassium iodide

3. Iodine solution

4. Sodium chloride

Answers

1. Potassium bromide has ionic bonding between its two elements potassium and bromine.

2. Bromine has a -1 charge, and potassium has a +1 charge.

3. Silver ions can dissolve halide anions out.

4. Potassium bromide is a strong electrolyte as it can be entirely dissociated in an aqueous solution.

5. As chlorine is considered the stronger oxidizing substrate than bromine, it can react with potassium bromide and generate KCl and bromine gas. Here is the chemical equation of this reaction-

2 KBr + Cl₂ 🡪 2 KCl + Br₂ 

Uses of Potassium Bromide

The next important question which arises is “what is potassium bromide used for”. Thus, the following are some crucial usages of KBr.

• During the 19th or 20th century, this compound was utilized as a medicine against convulsions. However, nowadays, it is majorly used as an antiepileptic medicine for veterinary uses. 

• One of the most vital usages is as sedatives.

• Commonly, this is also operated in the infrared spectroscopy technique. This utilization is majorly performed because of its transparent crystal formation with zero optical absorption.

• In the photographic plates and paper manufacturing industry, it is one of the most widespread chemical compounds.

• As a heat stabilizer in nylon production, potassium bromide is regarded as a popular chemical agent.

• It is also used to treat aquariums.

• This is also a popular plasticiser.

• Some other potassium bromide used are as laboratory agents and manufacture chemicals.

Application of Potassium Bromide in Veterinary Medicine

Before the introduction of phenobarbital, potassium bromide was licensed to treat several seizure disorders in humans. Nonetheless, it is still regarded as an antiepileptic drug for animals. It works at the cellular level to reduce seizure activities by suppressing neuronal excitability and activity. Potassium bromide can be taken orally and is mostly excreted by the kidneys.

However, it is hardly considered under first-line drugs as it acts slowly and takes nearly four months to achieve a stable concentration of bromide ions inside the brain. Moreover, it is always prescribed along with phenobarbital in initial stages. However, depending on the species of animal, the dose or usages can be different. 

For example, cats are prone to potassium bromide side-effects. Thus, they are mostly treated with this compound. However, dogs can be treated with potassium bromide as per medical practitioner advice. 

Some common side-effects of potassium bromide found in animals are lethargy, vomiting, transient sedation, pancreatitis, polydipsia, anorexia, constipation, and polyuria.

Precautions

• The level of bromide ion can be affected by chloride as these two ions compete to take up the cellular membrane. 

• Low-salt or low-sodium diets can increase bromide toxicity in animals. Contrarily, a high sodium diet can decrease the bromine level and increase the risk of seizure. 

• In dogs, the reproductive safety of Br is yet to be proved. However, in humans, Br can go through the placenta and also is present in lactation.

• Older animals can experience intense adverse side effects.

How are Bromides Given

Bromides are taken by mouth as a chewable pill or liquid solution, and should be taken with meals to reduce stomach distress. It can either be incorporated with food or given straight by mouth with a meal as long as the complete dose is consumed. Elevate the food dish if it has been blended into the food. To avoid discomfort in the mouth or throat, ensure the capsule is thoroughly taken and followed by food or drink. With a precise measuring device/syringe, carefully measure liquid dosages. If gastrointestinal distress persists after taking the medication with food, divide the one daily dose into several doses spread out over a 24-hour period. Salty meals should not be given. If your veterinarian advises, do not abruptly cease using this medicine. It may take a few weeks for the full effects of this drug to become apparent, although incremental improvements are normally seen. Side effects might happen right away.

Potassium Bromide Drug Information and Indication

Potassium bromide is an antiepileptic medication used in dogs to treat seizures that cannot be controlled by phenobarbital alone or in dogs that do not handle phenobarbital well. Potassium bromide reduces seizure activity in the central nervous system. Because of the high prevalence of adverse effects, cats are less likely to be treated with potassium bromide. Although potassium bromide is an efficient medication, it might take up to four months for the concentration to reach effective levels. Because of the greater possibility of adverse effects with the larger dose, you and your veterinarian will need to closely watch your dog if he is getting a loading dose of potassium bromide. The level of the antiepileptic medicine in your dog’s blood will need to be measured on a frequent basis. Your veterinarian will create a suitable dosage for your dog based on this information. Your dog will very certainly be treated for the rest of their life.

Safety Hazards

Besides being used as medicine, it has some significant side effects as well. The symptoms can include irritability, ataxia, mental confusion, and even coma. In some cases, this chemical compound can cause skin rashes, hallucination, mania, and drowsiness. Potassium bromide in large quantities causes sensory disturbances, vertigo, death, and increases the pressure of the spinal fluid.

Furthermore, the potassium salt is a major irritant to the eyes. If swallowed in heavy quantity, this substate causes delirium, psychosis, and somnolence.

Hopefully, from the above content, you have understood the chemical compound potassium bromide- KBr, its structure, and its properties. If you need more references on potassium bromide uses and applications, you can visit our website now. You can also download our app for better access.