Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

Everything in this world is made out of some kind of matter. This matter is further divided into smaller parts; they are not visible to the naked eye and can only be observed through instruments specially created to see them. 

Now, what is matter subdivided into? 

The matter is made out of molecules. Be it, Liquids, gases, or solids, they are all made out of molecules. 

Now, molecules are further classified into smaller parts called atoms. 

Confused?

Read on further to know the difference between molecules and atoms.

 

Definition  

Molecule  

Molecules are usually made up of two or more smaller structures called atoms. These atoms share electrons or exchange electrons in order to be held together. The bonding takes place between the particles in the outer shell of an atom.

A molecule is said to be the smallest unit of a chemical compound. It exhibits similar properties as of that of the compound it is a part of. They vary significantly in complexity and size. Everything in this world is made up of molecules, right from the oxygen that we breathe to the furniture we use. 

Some examples of Molecules are O₂ and H₂, Chlorine molecules Cl₂ and others in nature.

 

Atom 

An atom it the smallest part of an element. It shows chemical properties that relate to the element it is forming. Although it is very small in nature, scientists have discovered that atoms can be broken down into smaller parts. They are protons, neutrons, and electrons. An atom of the element always contains a fixed amount of electrons, protons, and neutrons. For example, let’s take the atom of carbon. It has 6 protons, 6 electrons, and six neutrons. Some elements also have something called isotopes, such as carbon. The isotopes of carbon differ in the number of neutrons. This usually results in radioactivity.

Everything in this universe is made of tiny particles called atoms. Believe it or not, there are 92 different kinds of atoms in nature! These 92 different forms combine with one another to form different types of matter that we see all around us in our day to day life.

 

Components 

Molecule

You must be wondering, how molecules are held together? It is because of the shared electron pairs, or more commonly called as covalent bonds. These bonds are directionless and are kept in positions in such a way, that it maximizes bond strength. Because of this, molecules have a definite and rigid structure. It comprises of two or more identical or sometimes different atoms that are chemically bonded together.

 

Atom 

Atoms consist of a nucleus, electrons, neutrons, and protons. The nucleus of an atom holds the majority of the mass of the atom. It composes of protons and neutrons which are totally referred to as nucleons. The lighter electrons orbit the atom’s nucleus. The total sum of protons and neutrons that comprise the atom’s nucleus is called the atom’s mass number which is usually referred to as nucleon number.

 

Protons

Protons are the positively charged particles which are present in the atom’s nucleus. It comprises of the total mass of the atom along with the neutrons. 

 

Neutrons 

These are particles that showcase a neutral charge; they share the nucleus of an atom with protons. The number of protons in each element is a constant number while the number of neutrons can vary. Because of this reason, the element’s mass number can differ from one atom to another. 

 

Electrons

These particles are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom. They are much lighter than both the protons and neutrons and consist of a relative mass of 1/1836 the mass of the protons. Energy levels are referred to the area that the electrons orbit in a series of levels. Each level can hold a specific number of electrons, the first orbit is the one closest to the nucleus, and the levels keep going further and further away. Depending upon the total number of electrons will be the number of energy levels in an atom.

 

Bonding 

Molecules

The molecules are bound by something called covalent bonding. It is the interatomic linkage that arises from the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms. This happens due to the electrostatic attraction of their nuclei for similar electrons. A covalent bond is formed when the bonded atoms have lower total energy than that of widely separated atoms.

A single line between the elements indicates that there is a bond between two atoms double lines (=) represent a double bond between two atoms (i.e., involving two electron pairs), and triple lines (≡) indicate a triple bond. 

Covalent bonds are always directional. This means that atoms that are bonded usually prefer only specific structures that are relative to one another; this, in turn, gives molecules definite shapes, as in the angular (bent) structure of the H2O molecule. 

 

Atoms 

The Coulomb forces are the forces between the electrons and the nuclei. It is the force of attraction and repulsion between the particles and the nuclei. The energy formed between the atoms is the sum of all individual forces, and that is why the electrons are located outside the atom and the nucleus in the center. If two atoms come close together, the force formed is that of repulsion.

The interaction energy is defined as the potential energy between the atoms. It is always negative if the atoms are bound and positive if they can move away from each other. 

The interaction energy is usually minimum at the equilibrium position. This energy value is called the bond energy, and it is the energy needed to separate completely to infinity. This value is defined as the bond energy of the atom. The stronger the bond energy, the harder it is to move the atoms; for example, it is harder to melt solids than to evaporate the liquid. This is because of the bond energy. 

 

Conclusion

Both atoms and molecules are what makes up this entire universe. As mentioned earlier in this article, atoms make up molecules. But, the chemical properties of atoms are not usually retained when they form molecules. The best example is salt. It contains Na which is a highly reactive metal and Cl which is a toxic gas. But when they come together in the necessary proportions, they form table salt (NaCl) which is neither a metal nor toxic. This clearly proves that the chemical properties of atoms are changed when they form molecules.

Molecules can always be separated into their constituent atoms by chemical methods that have been discovered by various scientists. However, this is not possible with atoms. Atoms can be further divided into subatomic particles by means of nuclear methods. 

Molecules can exist independently and are often stable. However, atoms cannot be independent. Only noble gas configurations are able to stabilize by themselves. Argon, helium, krypton are examples of noble gases. The reason behind their stability is that they have reached the maximum number of electrons in their outer shells. Hence, they don’t display any charge. Though, atoms which don’t have this kind of stability come together to either share or relocate electrons to make molecules and to develop into a stable one.

Take a beaker and put water in it. Now put this beaker on the flame and keep heating it. After some time, you will notice that water starts boiling and changes into vapor. This phenomenon is called vaporization. Now have you noticed that if a glass of water falls on the floor and no one wipes it but still after some time it dries. In the same way wet clothes dry up after some time. Do you know how? Well as we know that particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest it means they possess different amounts of kinetic energy at different temperatures. In the case of liquid as well a small fraction of particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy, is able to break away from the forces of attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapors. This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapors at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.

 

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Following factors affect rate of evaporation –

• Surface Area – Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. If the surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation also increases. For example, we spread clothes out to dry them faster. Relation between rate of evaporation and surface area can be written as –

 

Rate of Evaporation α Surface Area

• Temperature – Rate of evaporation increases at higher temperatures. As with increase of temperature, a greater number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapor state. For example, wet clothes dry quickly under sunlight. Relation between rate of evaporation and temperature can be written as –

 

Rate of Evaporation α Temperature 

• Humidity – Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in air. Air cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapor at a given temperature. If the amount of water in air is already high or maximum, the rate of evaporation decreases. Relation between rate of evaporation and surface area can be written as –

 

Rate of Evaporation α [frac{1}{Humidity}]

 

• Wind Speed – With increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapor move away with the wind, decreasing the amount of water vapor in the surrounding. Thus, an increase in wind speed increases the rate of evaporation as well. For example, clothes dry faster on a windy day. Relation between rate of evaporation and surface area can be written as –

 

 Rate of Evaporation α Wind Speed 

What is Condensation?

Again, take a beaker and put water in it. Now put this beaker on the flame and keep heating it. After some time, you will notice that water starts boiling and changes into vapor. Now cover the beaker with a lid and stop giving it heat. After a minute when you take out the lid you will see water droplets on one side of the lid. This is because water vapor gets condensed and changes into liquid again. Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase. This is a reverse phenomenon of vaporization. 

When you take out a chilled soft drink bottle from the fridge and keep it aside after drinking then after some time you notice small drops of liquid on the surface of the bottle. This is also an example of condensation. It takes place when the vapor in the warm air meets a cool surface and cools down to change its state.

 

Reason Behind Condensation Process 

Like other matters, water also consists of atoms. These atoms are energetic so move rapidly. These particles are far from each other when they are in the form of vapor. So, when this vapor comes in contact with cooler temperatures, particles become less energetic and come closer to each other. Thus, vapor changes into liquid upon reaching threshold energy level.

 

Difference Between Evaporation and Condensation

What is the Water Cycle?

The continuous processes of evaporation and condensation are cyclic, that is they occur simultaneously creating the water cycle. Water cycle is a complex system that shows the movement of water through the Earth and its atmosphere in different forms- liquid and gas. Evaporation and condensation are the most important processes in the water cycle. It is through evaporation that the surface water rises up in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor and through condensation that it transforms into clouds which eventually brings rain.

Uses and Application of Evaporation

A traditional way to produce table salt that is still applicable in many parts of the world is through the process of evaporation. If you fill a bowl with sea water and keep it at an open temperature, the water will evaporate through the sun’s heat leaving behind fresh salt. Evaporation ponds work with the same mechanism; large amounts of saline water is dried through evaporation in these ponds to extract table salt, magnesium, potash and bromine.

As mentioned earlier, through the process of evaporation heat is removed from the atmosphere. This property of evaporation is used exclusively in evaporators and swamp coolers. Evaporators are massive machines used in industries to vaporize compressed cooling chemicals to remove excessive heat. Alternatively, in other industries it can be used to separate various compounds like water from crude oil. They are also used to not only concentrate food and dairy products but also to remove moisture from drugs produced in pharmaceutical industries.

Similarly, swamp coolers or evaporative coolers are used in countries of hot temperatures to lower the air temperature and provide some relief.

 

Uses and Application of Condensation

The process of distillation follows the process of condensation, which is essential for separating different substances from mixt
ures in laboratories and industries. Condenser is the device that is used to condense vapor. Condensers are used in air conditioners or heat pumps to either collect or release heat as per the requirement. In industries, it is used in various heat exchange systems and steam power plants.

As we know, condensation is the phenomenon through which water is produced in the liquid form; that is why many structures are built- like dew wells and fog fences-  that work on this process to collect large amounts of liquid water for domestic use, agricultural use and industrial use in places of high desertification or no nearby water body. 

The compounds contain carbon as one of their main constituents whether it be in the solid, gaseous, or liquid state is called an organic compound. Different theories are given on the organic compounds which are related to their structural formulas, space-filled models, and Lewis structures. 

Inorganic chemistry is a part of chemistry that focuses upon compounds that lack carbon. The inorganic substances are identified by lacking the bonding of carbon and hydrogen. Examples of inorganic compounds are salts, chemical substances, and metals. 

Types of Compounds

The association of atoms of different elements results in the formation of compounds. Based on the kind of attraction that exists between the atoms of the compound, compounds are classified into four major categories. These are as follows.

1. Covalent compounds

2. Ionic compounds

3. Metallic compounds

4. Coordinate covalent compounds

1. Covalent compounds: In covalent compounds, atoms of different elements share their electrons to attain stability

2. Ionic compounds: In ionic compounds, atoms of different elements are associated with each other by the complete transfer of their electrons.

3. Metallic compounds: Metallic compounds are characterized by the association of different metallic atoms by strong metallic forces

4. Coordinate covalent compounds: In coordinate covalent compounds, certain complex ions are held together by covalent and coordinate bonds

 

Synthesis of Organic Compounds

The discovery of urea was responsible for the revolution in the field of organic chemistry. In 1845, this discovery was helpful for Kolbe to work on the preparation of acetic acid in the laboratory while Hennel worked successfully on the preparation of ethyl alcohol.

Berthelot in 1856 was successful in the preparation of methane in the laboratory without using any living organism.

 

New Version of Organic Chemistry

After the successful synthesis of various organic compounds in the laboratory, the Vital force theory was completely disregarded. An in-depth study of organic compounds revealed that these compounds are mainly made up of carbon. The study of compounds of carbon mainly is known as organic chemistry.

One thing to be noted here is that the mere presence of carbon in the compound does not indicate that the compound is organic. For example, CO₂ contains carbon but is an inorganic compound.

An in-depth understanding of the structures of organic compounds shows that all the organic compounds are made up of carbon as their main component which is invariably associated with hydrogen as well. These organic compounds which are mainly made of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

There are a large number of organic compounds present that contain inorganic particles such as nitrogen, Sulphur, phosphorus etc. But these compounds are derivatives of hydrocarbons only and hence are regarded as organic compounds.

Hence organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of hydrocarbons and their derivatives. 

 

Difference Between Organic and Inorganic Compounds

During the early years of the development of chemistry, chemists made many unsuccessful attempts to synthesize organic compounds in the laboratory. After multiple failures, all their efforts went futile and they were forced to believe that organic compounds can be synthesized by the special mechanism which can take place only inside living beings. Hence, unlike inorganic compounds, organic compounds cannot be prepared in the laboratory. All organisms are largely composed of organic molecules. The organic molecules which are highly important to us are mainly carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc.

 

The development of organic chemistry is around 200 years old. In the late seventeenth century, chemists worldwide began to differentiate between the organic compounds obtained from plants and animals and inorganic molecules obtained from mineral resources.

The difference between organic and inorganic compounds are given below in tabular form for better understanding.

 

Reasons for the Presence of a Large Number of Organic Compounds

As we know organic compounds are mainly made up of carbon and hydrogen, the basic properties of carbon result in the formation of such a large number of compounds.

1. Tetravalency: The atomic number of carbon is 6. This means that it contains 4 electrons in its valence shell. To satisfy its valency, carbon undergoes covalent bond formation.

2. The Small Size of Carbon: Because of the small size of carbon, its nucleus is more exposed and enables carbon to accommodate four species around it to satisfy its valency.

3. Catenation:< /span> It is the self-linking property of carbon that enables it to combine with more carbon to satisfy its valency.

 

The three reasons mentioned above clearly justify the presence of a large number of organic compounds on the earth.

 

On the other hand, inorganic compounds are naturally found in the minerals in the earth’s crust, hence they are limited in number. Most of the inorganic compounds do not show tetravalency and catenation and hence they are limited in number. 

Types of Organic Compounds

As we know most of the organic compounds are derivatives of hydrocarbons, so to study the types of organic compounds, let’s start with the types of hydrocarbons.                            

These two types of hydrocarbons are mainly categorized based on the number of bonds between carbon atoms present in them

1. Saturated Hydrocarbons

Those organic compounds which have only single bonds between carbon atoms are known as alkanes. They have a maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded with carbon atoms.

The general formula of the compounds of this family is CnH2n+1 i.e. successive compounds of alkanes differ with each other in composition by -CH₂ group.

2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Those organic compounds which have an insufficient number of hydrogen atoms undergo double and triple bond formation to satisfy their valency are known as unsaturated hydrocarbons.

The general formula of the family of hydrocarbons showing double bond is C_nH₂n whereas the family shows triple bond in C_nH_2n-1. The family of the double bond is known as Alkene whereas the family of triple bond is known as Alkyne.

Unsaturation results in instability of the carbon compound. This can be removed by the process of hydrogenation in which hydrogen molecules are supplied to the carbon compound containing a double or triple bond in the presence of catalyst Ni/Pd to remove unsaturation.

Conclusion

Hence we get to know about the related necessary information of organic and inorganic compounds and the basic difference between them. These concepts will be helpful for understanding higher concepts of organic and inorganic chemistry.

Everything that occupies space and has mass is called matter. We can see around us that matter exists mainly in three different states – Solid, Liquid and Gas. Chair, chocolate, sugar, eraser, sharpener, pencil etc. around you are all examples of matter in solid-state which have a definite shape and volume. Honey, water, milk, oil, tea, coffee, cold drink etc. all are examples of matter in a liquid state which possesses definite volume but no definite shape. Air, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. all are examples of matter in a gaseous state which possesses neither definite shape nor volume. Thus, you can see solid, liquid and gas all types of matter possess different kinds of properties by which we can distinguish them.

The Difference between Solids, Liquids, and Gas

Solids tends to be characterized by structural rigidity as well as resistance to a force applied on the given surface. The ions and atoms in solids are tightly packed together, thereby restricting their movement. 

Liquids are classified as incompressible fluids that acquire the shape of the container they’re poured in. So, although they have a definite volume, the same cannot be said for their shape. They tend to retain a constant volume, independent of their pressure. 

Gases are highly compressible forms of matter. Much like liquids, they tend to acquire the shape of the container they’re in but they tend to have an indefinite volume. 

The difference between solids, liquids, and gases is shown below in a tabular form: 

Difference between Solids, Liquids, and Gas

This is all about the difference between solid, liquid and gas on the basis of their different characteristic properties, if you are looking for detailed study notes on different states of matter or NCERT Solutions for Class IX Science then register yourself on or download learning app and get access to study notes, NCERT Solutions, revision notes and mock tests.

To understand the dispersed phase, we need to understand what a colloid is. A colloid is a heterogeneous solution. In this solution, a dispersed phase is suspended in the dispersed medium. That is, the particles of the dispersed phase are present in the particles of the dispersed medium. A colloid solution does not possess a uniform mixture.

Water in starch or water in ink is an example of a heterogeneous mixture. Water is considered a dispersed medium in the above criteria, and starch or ink can be regarded as a dispersed phase. Two phases exist in this case. One step possesses finely differentiated particles suspended in a continuous medium. The stage with finely differentiated particles is called the dispersed phase. A dispersed medium consists of two media that do not mix. These two media can be different in properties altogether. Precisely, they can be a liquid, a solid or a gas. There are various everyday life examples of dispersed media. Milk, which we most probably use daily, is made up of oil drops dispersed in water. Shaving creams contain tiny airdrops of water dispersed in the air.

Difference Between Dispersed Phase and Dispersed Medium

The dispersed phase of dispersion is the discontinuous phase that distributes throughout the dispersion medium. It is one of the two stages of a colloid. The dispersion medium is the continuous phase of a colloid, and it distributes throughout the dispersion medium. The dispersed phase is known as the internal phase, whereas the dispersion medium is called the external phase. Examples of the dispersed phase include dust in the air, whereas that of dispersion medium includes water in milk.

Types of Dispersion Systems

There are two types of dispersion systems, Molecular Dispersions and Coarse Dispersions. Molecular dispersions are dedicated solutions to a solute phase in the solvent. The dispersed phase is homogeneously distributed in the dispersion medium. Examples of molecular dispersion are air (consisting of various gasses like nitrogen and oxygen), electrolytes, and alloys.

The second type of dispersion medium is of the coarse kind. These are heterogeneous dispersed systems. Fast sedimentation of the dispersed phase is observed owing to the coarse dispersions, mainly due to gravity.

Dispersed Phase: Classification and Types

Based on the type of dispersed phase, colloids can be classified into various types. These include sol, emulsion, foam, and aerosol. A colloidal suspension of solid particles in a liquid is called a sol, e.g., Ruby glass. An emulsion is a colloidal suspension of two drinks, e.g., milk. Foam is formed when gas particles get trapped in a liquid or solid, e.g., soap in water. Aerosols are small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a gas, e.g., smoke, fog, mist, etc.

Depending upon the minute particles’ nature of the dispersed phase, the colloids are mainly differentiated into three types:

• Multimolecular colloids

• Macromolecular Colloids

• Associated Colloids

Multimolecular Colloids

When a substance gets dissolved in a dispersion medium, it gets separated into several smaller molecules of different sizes. Usually, their size varies from 1-1000nm. After the separation of the particles, the colloid constitutes several atoms and molecules known as multimolecular colloids.

Example: Hundreds of Sulfur molecules are held together by van der Waals force and form Sulfur Solution.

Macromolecular Colloids

Its size is relatively more. However, in a suitable solvent, these form solutions whose size may or may not remain in the colloidal range. This arrangement is popular as Macromolecular Colloids.

Example: Enzymes, cellulose, and proteins are naturally formed macromolecular colloids, but rubber and polythene are synthesized.

Associated Colloids

Basically, these are behaving like strong electrolytes. However, when a suitable condition like in higher concentration, they show the behavior of colloidal particles. Because of this nature, these are known as Associated Colloids and also famous as a micelle.

Examples: Soaps and detergents 

How Does Dispersion Occur?

The agglomerated particles get separated from each other. A new line of interaction between the dispersion medium’s inner surface and the outer surface of dispersed particles is created. This whole process is aided by molecular diffusion and convection. Through molecular diffusion phenomena, dispersion occurs through different concentrations of the media introduced throughout the bulk medium. The difference in engagement between dispersed material and the bulk medium creates a concentration gradient that drives the medium’s dispersion. 

This results in an equal dispersion of particles in the medium. In convection, variation in velocity between paths of flow in the bulk medium facilitates the equal distribution of dispersed material in the medium. Diffusion is the primary mechanism in dispersion, although it is driven by convection in some cases. In most cases, convection is what helps in accelerating the process of diffusion.

How Does Dispersion Occur in Prism?

To understand how dispersion occurs in a prism we need to first understand what is a prism. A prism is two rectangular bases and three rectangular surfaces in a solid figure. The angle of the prism is the angle between each surface. The surfaces are parallel and equal. Now let’s begin with the experiment. 

We need a constant beam of light, a prism, and a white plain wall to produce seven different colors with a single white light. First, place the project components near the window. Make sure that the sunlight should fall on the prism in such a way that it should cover one side of the prism and then on the wall. 

Observation

You can observe that a single beam of light from the sun is now separated into seven different colors. This process of separating a single light into various wavelengths is known as dispersion of light. 

The colors that you see are called VIBGYOR. VIBGYOR stands for letter V as Violet, the letter I as indigo, letter B as blue, letter G as green, letter Y as yellow, letter O as Orange, and letter R as red.  The color pattern which we get after throwing a single beam of light on a prism or any other object is called a spectrum. Another example of the spectrum is the rainbow but you cannot see all the seven colors because the colors overlap each other.

What is a Dispersion System and How Does it Work?

The dispersion system has a two-sided system that is made up of microscopic particles along with a medium that helps them to be suspended. The dispersion system works on a basic principle that it separates the collection of particles from each other. Light can be a common example of dispersion. The second commonly used example is a rainbow. Let us know how this works. The speed of the light ray results in light dispersion. Similarly, the dispersion of a rainbow is a spatial disconnection of a single white light into many different lights.

Dispersion Medium

Foam is a colloidal system. The particles are gas bubbles whereas the medium is a liquid. Foam can be easily classified as something which is light in weight or rigid form. Long-lasting foams are made from liquid foams, purposely made for heavy usage. For example – Fire fighting. Stab
ilizers are used to prevent the coalescence of the bubbles. Proteins are well known as a stabilizer as they are edible in nature.

It is described as the chemistry of solid, liquid, and gas particles. Fog is a natural aerosol.

A solid suspension is a mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve. The mixture of chalk water is a common example of a solid suspension.

Gels are solid in the medium. Gelation is the process in which gel is foamed.

The particle size of a colloidal suspension is large. Muddy water is a good example of colloidal suspension. 

The emulsion is a mixture of more than one liquid or moire that cannot be mixed. Emulsion belongs to the general class. A golden example of an emulsion is water and oil. If stirred it will mix for a while but soon it will be separated. 

Dry wood is a classic example of solid foam. they are made out of a specific framework. Commonly used in yoga mats.

What is a Colloid?

A colloid is a mixture of only one particular substance which is evenly distributed. There can be only two different states. Diameters range between 5 and 200 nanometres. Milk is a classic example of colloid in liquid whereas shaving cream is a colloid of gas inside the liquid.

What is a Solution in Chemistry?

The solution is a similar mixture of two or more substances in equal amounts. However, Solutions of gas and solid are possible. A commonly used example is air. Air is a mixture of several gases but the major gases of air are oxygen and nitrogen. The solution consists of two substances, Solvent, and the substance mixed with it is called the solute. 

The solvent is basically a liquid in which various materials can be mixed to make a solution. For better understanding, water is a solvent. 

The solute can be a substance or a material that has been dissolved in a solvent to create a mixture. A common example is a saltwater. In this case, salt is a solute mixed with water, water is solvent to produce a mixture called a solution.

Conclusion

We have covered all aspects of the Dispersed Phase and its classification. This clear picture will help you in learning the topic well.

Einsteinium Element

Einsteinium is a synthetic element with the atomic number 99 and is a part of the periodic table. It is represented by the symbol “Es” in the periodic table. It is also a member of the actinide series. Einsteinium is the seventh transuranic element and falls in category 13 of the heavy transuranic subsets of the elements.

Einsteinium is synthetic, i.e. it does not occur in nature, nor is it present on the surface of the earth. It is formed in limited quantities by artificial natural transmutations of certain radioactive elements or by a further explosion of thermonuclear bombs.

[]

Who Discovered Einsteinium?

The initial discovery of Einsteinium (element 99) was an unforeseen result of the detonation of the first thermonuclear weapon, “Mike,” which took place on 1 November 1952. 

In December 1952, Einsteinium, the seventh transuranic atom in the actinide sequence to be found, was detected by Ghiorso and his co-workers at Berkeley in rubble from the first large thermonuclear blast in the Pacific. Einsteinium was identified as a trace ingredient in the debris from the huge explosion of the Eniwetok hydrogen bomb.

The findings of many of the trans-uranium elements were the result of meticulous theoretical preparation, taking into consideration laboratory methods, forecasts of chemical and nuclear properties.

Einsteinium was one of the trace elements that had been identified. Initial investigations had also revealed fermium and other new elements. Its presence, as well as the presence of many other discovered elements, was not revealed until 1955 owing to the secrecy of this new form of a thermonuclear weapon.

Einsteinium is created by a series of nuclear reactions that includes bombing each isotope and then enabling beta-decay isotopes.

[]

Naming of Einsteinium

The second element was named in Albert Einstein’s honour. The symbol initially introduced for Einsteinium was E, but when IUPAC accepted the name in 1957, they modified the symbol to Es in order to conform to their current regulation that all newly identified elements would have two-letter symbols.

Einsteinium Atomic Number

The atomic number basically defines the number of protons in the particular element. An element is identified by the number of protons, which is given by the atomic number. 

The atomic number of the element Einsteinium is 99.

Einsteinium Electron Configuration

[]

An atom has various shells on which electrons revolve around the nucleus. The number of electrons present in each of the shells is known as the electronic configuration of an element.

The electronic configuration of Einsteinium is [Rn] 5f117s2.  In a simpler form, the electrons per shell of Einsteinium can be written as [2, 8, 18, 32, 29, 8, 2]. Einsteinium can have a valency of +2, +3, and +4.

Einsteinium Atomic Mass

The atomic mass of an element refers to the mass of one atom of that element, which is measured in atomic mass units (u), where one atomic mass unit is equivalent to 1/12 the mass of carbon-12 isotope. When calculating the atomic mass of a particular element, we add up the mass of the protons and neutrons, because the mass of the electrons is negligible compared to their mass. 

The atomic mass for Einsteinium is 252, but it can vary depending on the isotope. 

Isotopes of Einsteinium

Einsteinium is a radioactive metallic element and a member of the periodic table group of actinides. It reacts with the oxygen atom, steam, and acids, but it does not react with alkali. The desired oxidation level for the einsteinium atom is +3. 

Isotopes are forms of an element with the same atomic numbers but different mass numbers, i.e. a different number of neutrons. Isomers are forms of a compound or radical that contain the same number of atoms of the same elements but vary in structural arrangement and other characteristics.

There are 17 known Einsteinium isotopes with mass numbers from 241 to 257 and 3 identified isomers. All Einsteinium isotopes are radioactive, and the isotope Einsteinium-252 with a half-life of 472 days is the one with the longest lifespan. 

Properties of Einsteinium

 

Uses of Einsteinium

1. Only small quantities of Einsteinium have ever been produced, and this is mainly used in scientific studies. 

2. One can simulate and study radioactive decay through Einsteinium. 

3. It is among the heaviest elements on which we can perform bulk studies. 

4. It has some medical uses but is not yet commercial.  

5. It is mainly used for studying radiation damage, targeted medical radiation treatments and accelerated ageing.