Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

Ammonium acetate is a white crystalline solid, which was formed when ammonia reacts with acetic acid.  Ammonium acetate is also called ammonium ethanoate, azanium acetate. Ammonium acetate is also the spirit of mindererus in an aqueous solution. The uses of Ammonium acetate are predominant in chemical analysis, such as pharmaceutical industry, preservative in food processing industries, and various other industries. Ammonium acetate can also be used as a buffer substance in tropical personal care and manufacturing cosmetic products including shampoos, skin lotions, conditioners…etc. The IUPAC name: CH₃COONH₄ chemical name of ammonium acetate

Ammonium Acetate Molecular Formula

Ammonium Acetate salt is the combination of a weak base and a weak acid. But, mostly ammonium acetate is used as acetic acid for creating a buffer solution. The chemical components of the ammonium acetate are volatile at low temperatures. So, they are used to replace non-volatile salts with cell buffers during the preparation of chemical samples. The molecular weight of ammonium acetate is about 77.083 g/mol. The density of ammonium acetate stays from 1.17 g/cm³ (20 °C)  to 1.073 g/cm³ (25 °C). The chemical formula for ammonium acetate is NH4CH3CO2.

Why Ammonium Acetate is Buffer? 

Ammonium acetate can produce by neutralizing acetic acid with the ammonium carbonate. Or else, they can produce by saturating glacial acetic acid with ammonia. The production of crystalline ammonium acetate is difficult as the ammonium acetate has hygroscopic nature. 

Ammonium acetate is a salt, it is a combination of a weak acid and a weak base. But, ammonium acetate is usually used as acetic acid to create a buffer solution. As the ammonium acetate is volatile at low pressure, they are used for replacing cell buffers with non-volatile salts for preparing samples at mass spectrometry.  The ammonium acetate is a popular buffer solution for mobile phases for HPLC with ELSD detection. Other volatile salts are also used for the ammonium formate. 

Uses of Ammonium Acetate 

• Ammonium acetate is unstable at low temperatures. 

• Ammonium acetate is the biodegradable de-icing agent.

• Ammonium acetate is widely used in manufacturing explosives.

• Ammonium Acetate is used for making foam rubber.

• Ammonium acetate is used as food preservatives and acidity regulators in food.

• Ammonium Acetates are unitized in agricultural products.

• Ammonium Acetate plays a vital role in manufacturing vinyl plastics.

• Components of ammonium acetates have a predominant role in pharmaceutical industries. 

Acetylene can be defined as the simplest alkyne, alternatively, it is also defined as the simplest hydrocarbon. Acetylene is more commonly known as ethylene. The chemical formula of ethyne is also known as the molecular formula of ethyne. The chemical formula of the compound is represented as C2H2. The C2H2 chemical name suggests that the compound is made up of carbon and hydrogen. The bond between two carbon and hydrogen is a triple bond. Thus making it an unsaturated chemical compound. Acetylene is a colourless and odourless gas in its purest state, but due to difficulty in handling, they are used in a liquid state for commercial purposes. They are the main component of the fuel and serves as the building block for many chemical compounds.

The article focuses on the chemical formula of ethylene or acetylene, the structural formula of ethylene, chemical, and physical properties, and also the chemical reaction they are involved in. 

Formula of Ethyne 

The formula of ethyne includes the chemical formula of ethyne and the structural formula of ethyne. The acetylene chemical formula can be represented as C2H2. the C2H2 chemical name suggests that the compound is the simplest hydrocarbon. It is also referred to as alkyne. The specific feature of acetylene is the presence of a triple bond present in between the two carbon atoms, which can be represented in the structural formula of ethylene.  The triple bond is at 180 degrees giving it a straight conformation. The angle between two carbon atoms of the acetylene structural formula represents the bond angle between them. IUPAC name of acetylene  or ethyne is acetylene, The structural formula of ethylene can be represented as the following

As represented in the structural formula of ethyne, it also indicates that the chemical compound is a symmetrical molecule. 

Preparation of Acetylene (Ethyne)

The acetylene can be produced using various preparative methods. Acetylene is also produced as a side product. Historically acetylene was produced as a by-product of ethylene production through hydrocarbon cracking. The methods of ethyne production are listed below.

1. Produced by partial combustion of methane.

2. Produced as a refined byproduct during ethylene production

3. Hydrolysis of chemical carbide is the widely used industrial preparative method of acetylene.

4. Produced by the dehydrohalogenation of alkyl dihalides.

5. They are also produced from vicinal dihalides

Preparation From Calcium Carbide

Since it is the most commonly used method for industrial manufacture of ethyne it is necessary to have an understanding of it.  This method includes the hydrolysis of calcium carbide. The only critical requirement is the high temperature of about 2000 °C, for the production of calcium carbide. The chemical reaction involved in the production can be represented as follows

CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2

Chemical Properties 

The chemical properties of acetylene include the acetylene formula, molecular weight, bond angle, the reactions of the compound, the molecular mass of the compound, and the empirical formula of acetylene. The chemical properties of a compound give the understanding of the reactions of the compound, there are the following chemical properties of acetylene that are listed below.

1. The acetylene formula or the empirical formula of acetylene can be represented as C2H2

2. The molecular weight of the compound is 26.04 g/mol.

3. The hydrogen bond donor count is 0

4. The hydrogen bond acceptor count is 0

5. There is no rotatable bond present.

6. They are unsaturated organic compounds due to the triple bond as represented in the structural formula of ethyne.

7. The bond angle is 180 degrees.

8. The chemical compound is categorized as the symmetrical compound.

9.  The C2H2 chemical name suggests that the compound is an alkyne.

10. The conjugate acid of acetylene is Ethynium.

Physical Property

The physical property of the organic compounds is defined on the basis of the molecular formula of acetylene. The physical properties of a compound include melting point, boiling point, density, physical appearance, and crystal structure. Some of the physical properties are mentioned as follows.

1. The boiling point of the compound is -119 °F at 760 mm Hg or alternatively can be defined as -84.7 °C

2. The organic compound is generally (purely) found in the gaseous state

3. Acetylene is a colourless gas

4. The pure form of the compound does not have any smell, whereas the industrially produced liquid form has a  faint smell of ether.

5. The acetylene does not have any melting point because in the natural atmospheric pressure it can not exist in the liquid state.

6. The melting point at minimal atmospheric pressure of 1.27atm is −80.8 °C.

7. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol, carbon disulfide; soluble in acetone, benzene, chloroform.

8. The molecular shape of the compound based on the ethyne molecular formula is defined as a linear structure.

9. The density of acetylene is 1.1772 g/L o
   r 1.1772 kg/m3

Chemical Reaction

Acetylene is involved in the following chemical reactions. Vinylation, hydration, hydrohalogenation, addition to formaldehyde, carbonylation, organometallic chemistry and, acid-base reactions.

Uses

Acetylene is a very reactive compound and was used as a main component of fuel for a very long time, they are also reported to be used in the explosive. There are following uses of the acetylene chemical compound, they are as follows

1. They are used in welding.

2. It is used in portable lighting.

3. It is used in the production of plastics and acrylic acid derivatives.

4. It is used in the radiocarbon dating process

5. It is used in the production of polyacetylene that is considered the first natural semiconductor.

Conclusion

Acetylene is also known as ethyne is an organic compound, it can be defined as an alkyne. The acetylene formula (the empirical formula of acetylene) can be represented as C2H2. the chemical compound can be produced using several methods the most commonly used method is the hydrolysis of calcium carbide. Another commercially important method of production is the partial combustion of methane. The conjugate acid of the compound is ethynium. In its natural state, the chemical compound is a colourless, odourless gas, but due to difficulty in handling, they are commercially used as liquids.

The heat rate is the entire amount of energy required by an electric generator or power plant to create one kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity.

It is the rate of input necessary to generate unit power. The ratio of thermal inputs to electrical output is also known as the heat rate. The better the efficiency, the lower the heat rate. In a thermal power supply, input and output energy are usually measured in the same unit. The amount of heat produced is proportional to the chemical energy supplied divided by the electrical energy freed.

The term efficiency is a non-dimensional measure (often expressed as a percentage), and specifically, heat rate is also non-dimensional but is frequently expressed as energy per energy in appropriate quantities. It’s joule per joule in SI units, but it’s also known as joule/kilowatt hour or British thermal units/kWh. Because kilowatt-hour is typically used to refer to electrical current and joule or Btu is generally used to refer to thermal energy, this is the case.

In the context of power plants, heat rate can be thought of as the amount of energy required to generate one unit of output. It refers to the amount of fuel needed to produce one unit of power. Effectiveness, fuel prices, plant load factor, pollutants level, and other performance indicators tracked for any thermal power station are all a result of the station heat rate and can be directly linked.

How to calculate Heat Rate?

Heat rate is a measurement of a power plant’s or generator’s thermal efficiency, usually expressed in British thermal units (Btu) per kilowatt-hour (kWh). It’s computed by multiplying the energy output of the fuel used to generate electricity by the quantity of electrical energy produced.

Input of Total Heat:

In boilers, the chemical energy present in the fuel (coal, biomass, oil, gas, etc.) is turned into heat energy, a process known as oxidation. The heat capacity of a fuel is expressed in Kcal/kg, KJ/kg, or BTU units. The remainder of this fuel is lost as dry flue gas loss, water loss, unburnt loss, radiation/convection losses, and so on. This excess heat from the fuel is used based on boiler efficiency; normally, fuel heat usage is in the range of approximately to 90%.

The heat created in the boilers as a result of fuel oxidation is used to produce high-pressure, high-temperature steam. Thus, the created vapor is fed into the gas turbine, where the heat energy, also known as thermal energy, is turned into kinetic energy, then mechanical energy in the steam turbine, and finally electrical energy in the generator. Chemical energy + Thermal energy + Kinetic energy + Mechanical energy = total heat input to the power plant

Electrical power in kilowatt-hours = output

Heat rate is the product of heat input and power generated.

Formula of Heat Rate

Rh = Ws × c × ΔT

Where, 

Ws  represents the steam flow 

Rh  represents rate of heat

ΔT is the temperature gradient

c stands for specific heat capacity

Solved Example

1. Determine the heat rate if vapor enters a rotor at 400°F and departs at 200°F at atmospheric pressure. During a typical operation, 500 lb of steam passes through the rotor every hour.

ΔT = 400 – 200

ΔT = 200°F

We have the Formula,

Rh = Ws × c × ΔT

Rh = 500 × 0.48 × 200

That equals,  Rh  = 48000 btu/hr

2. Compute the Gross station heat rate of a 100 MW thermal power plant that runs on 100% PLF and uses roughly 55 MT of coal with a GCV of 4500 kcal/kg per hour. 

We’ve done so.

Heat input to the plant/gross station heat rate generating electricity

GCV (kcal/kg) of fuel/Power generation/MWH =Fuel spent (MT)X GCV (kcal/kg) of fuel

100 = (55 X 4500)

= 2475 calories per kilowatt-hour

By converting fuel consumption in kilogrammes per hour and power generation in kilowatt-hours, the heat rate can be computed as follows:

=2475 calories per kilowatt-hour

=55 X 1000 X 4500/(100 X 1000 X 4500)

=0.55

Scientists, Professionals, Teachers, and Students of Chemistry widely use the periodic table of elements to search for chemical elements. Dimitri Mendeleev is referred to as the Father of the periodic table put forth the first form of the Periodic Table. This periodic table was based on the atomic mass of the elements. During his time only half of the elements known to us now were known, and not all of the information about elements was fully known or accurate.  The latest Periodic Table is based on Henry Moseley’s modern periodic law (Henry Moseley is an English physicist). As per the periodic law, the properties of Elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. The Periodic Table is made up of 118 Elements.

 

Key Characteristics of the Periodic Table: 

• Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

• Elements of the Periodic Table are denoted by a unique symbol and not its entire name, as some elements’ names can be long and complex in nature. 

• Elements are arranged vertically and horizontally. Elements arranged vertically in columns are called ‘Groups’ and elements arranged horizontally in rows are called ‘Periods’. 

• Further elements are grouped as per periodic trends and properties. Example: Elements in group 1A are soft metals that react violently with water.

Symbol of an Element

A symbol representing a chemical element is a ‘sign’ or ‘notation’ that generally consists of one or two letters. Some symbols have three letters, they generally represent synthesized elements newly, with some being temporarily named like that. 

 

Symbols and How They are Derived?

One may ask, ‘How is the symbol of an element derived?’ We can see in the table above that most of the symbols are derived from the elements’ names, by taking either the first or first two letters from the English name of the element. 

Some symbols of a few elements are derived from their Latin or Greek names. Let us look at some examples:

• The Latin name for gold is Aurum. Hence gold is denoted by the symbol ‘Au’.

• The symbol ‘Fe’ is used to denote Iron, as the Latin word for Iron is “Ferrum”.

 

Rules or Conventions followed to denote the Element using Symbol

The first letter of a symbol is capitalized with the second (or third) letters being in lowercase. Example: ‘Ca’ representing Calcium, ‘He’ representing Helium, etc. When the symbol representing an element is denoted by one letter only, it is written in uppercase.

Example: ‘N’ represents Nitrogen, ‘O’ represents oxygen, etc.

The elements which are new are temporarily named according to their atomic numbers. For example, the element with atomic number 110 was named as ‘un un nilium’ with the symbol ‘Uun’, now it is named Ds. 

As far as students are concerned, it is important to study all the 118 elements with their Symbol and Valency. Chemical formulas and equations are also represented using those symbols. Without the symbols, it would have been a herculean task to represent all these 118 elements and the umpteen numbers of compounds they form. 

 

Valency of an Element

In order to achieve the most stable configuration i.e. of a noble gas, the atom of an element tries to gain or lose electrons. This ability of an atom to gain or lose electrons to achieve a stable configuration or inert gas configuration is called the Valency of an element. The number of electrons in the outermost shell is called valence electrons and the outermost shell is called the valence shell. The valency of an element is determined by the number of electrons in the valence shell. It is important to know the atomic number and electronic configuration of an element to find its valency.

 

Atomic Number

The concept of atomic number and Valency can only be understood if you know what exactly elements are made up of. An element is made up of a single type of atom. An atom is the smallest indivisible unit of matter. It consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. The centre of the atom is also called the nucleus which is positively charged and consists of protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged. Neutrons are neutral so that it doesn’t have any charge on them. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. 

The sum of protons and neutrons gives the atomic mass of an element. The atomic number is the total number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by the letter Z. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. This is why the knowledge of atomic numbers is important in understanding the chemistry of elements.

 

The following table gives the list of 118 elements along with their symbols and atomic number.

Table of 118 Elements – Their Symbols and Atomic Number

Conclusion

Out of all the 118 Elements, 98 Elements are found in nature (those with atomic number 1- Hydrogen ‘H’ to atomic number 98 – Californium ‘Cf’; in the periodic table), with the rest being synthesized from the naturally occurring elements, in a laboratory. Elements synthesized in the laboratory include Einsteinium (99), Fermium (99) and Nobelium (102). However, this figure can change with time and better understanding, as some elements found after radioactive decay after nuclear testing experiments, therefore considered initially to be man-made, have subsequently been found in nature albeit in trace quantities. 

Also, out of the many elements occurring in nature not all of them occur in pure or native form. Noble gases like Helium, Argon, Neon, etc., are a few elements occurring in pure form. Metals like Gold, Silver, Copper, occur in their native form. Non-metals like carbon, nitrogen and oxygen occur in native form. Alkali metals and rare earth elements occur naturally although not in their native form.

Acid rain is given as a popular expression for the more scientific term – acid deposition that refers to the several ways where acidity can move from the atmosphere to the surface of Earth. Acid deposition includes acidic rain and other forms of acidic wet deposition – such as sleet, hail, snow, and fog (or cloud water). Also, acid deposition includes the dry deposition of gases, acidic particles, which may affect landscapes during dry periods. Hence, acid deposition is capable of affecting landscapes and living things, which reside within them even when precipitation is not taking place.

About Acidity

Acidity is the measure of hydrogen ions (H+) concentration in a solution. The pH scale measures whether a solution is either acidic or basic. The substances are considered acidic below a pH value of 7, and every unit of pH below 7 has 10 times more H+, or 10 times more acidic, than the unit above it. For example, rainwater with a pH of 4.0 has a concentration of 100 micro equivalents of H+ per litre, whereas rainwater with a pH value of 5.0 contains a concentration of 10 micro equivalents of H+ per one litre.

Nitrogen Cycle

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Normal rainwater is defined as weakly acidic due to the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, which is a process that produces carbonic acid and forms organic acids that are generated from biological activity. Additionally,  volcanic activity may form nitric acid (HNO3), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) based on the emissions associated with particular volcanoes.

The generation of nitrogen oxides from atmospheric molecular nitrogen (N2) conversion by lightning and the organic nitrogen conversion by wildfires are two other natural causes of acidification. The geographic range of any given natural source of acidification, on the other hand, is very limited, and in most instances, it only lowers the pH value of precipitation to around 5.2.

Sulfur Cycle

Sedimentary rocks that emit hydrogen sulphide gas, as well as human sources such as fossil-fuel combustion and smelters, all of which release sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, are mentioned below as major sulfur-producing sources.

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Anthropogenic activities, specifically the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) and the smelting of metal ores, are the primary causes of acid deposition. In the US, electric utilities produce around 70% of SO2 and around 20% of NOx emissions. Fossil fuels, which are burned by vehicles, account for around 60% of NOx emissions in the US. Sulfuric and nitric acids are generated in the atmosphere and react with water, when SO2 and NOx, respectively.

The acid rain chemical reaction is given below.

The simplest reactions of acid rain chemical formula or the formation of acid rain chemical equation are given as:

SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₄ ↔ H⁺ + HSO₄ ↔ 2H⁺ + SO₄₂

NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ ↔ H⁺ + NO₃

By the equation of acid rain given above,

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Wet deposition products are created by these specific reactions in the aqueous phase (for example, in cloud water). They can produce dry, acidic deposition in the gaseous phase. Also, acid formation can take place on particles in the atmosphere.

Where the fossil fuel consumption is large and the emission controls are not in place to reduce NOx and SO2 emissions, the acid deposition will take place in areas downwind of the emission sources, often ranging from hundreds to thousands of km away. In that type of area the pH of precipitation may average 4.0 to 4.5 annually, and the pH of individual rain events may sometimes drop below 3.0.

Ecological Effects of Acid Deposition

Effects on Lakes and Rivers

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the regional effects of acid deposition were first noted in parts of western Europe and eastern North America, in the chemistry, the changes of both the lakes and rivers, often in a few remote areas, were linked to declines in the health of aquatic species such as crayfish, the resident fish, including the clam populations.

Excess amounts of acid deposition in the sensitive areas caused tens of thousands of streams and lakes in both Europe and North America to become very more acidic than they had been in the previous decades. Acid-sensitive areas are the ones, which are predisposed to acidification due to either the soil regions having a low buffering capacity or a low acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC).

Effects on Forested and Mountainous Regions

Forests in southern Scandinavia, central Europe, and eastern North America displayed troubling signs of forest dieback and tree mortality in the 1970s and 1980s. In a survey conducted in 1993, 27 European countries have revealed that air pollution damage or mortality in 23% of the 100,000 trees surveyed.

Also, it is likely that the dieback was the result of several factors, including the acid deposition (for example, soil acidification and buffering capacity loss), exposure to the ground-level ozone, possible excess fertilization from the nitrogen compound deposition (such as ammonium, nitrates, ammonia compounds), and general stress, which is caused by a combination of these factors.

Once a tree is in a weakened condition, it is very likely to succumb to other environmental stressors such as insect infestation, drought, and pathogen infections. Often, the forest dieback areas were found to be associated with regions having low buffering capacity where damage to the aquatic ecosystems because of acid deposition was also taking place.

The below figure shows the spruce trees, which are damaged by acid rain in Karkonosze National Park, Poland.

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Adenine Definition: Adenine is a purine nucleobase with an amine group at position 6 connected to the carbon. Adenine is the building block for nucleosides, adenosine and deoxyadenosine. The molecular formula for adenine is C5H5N5.

Adenine Meaning: Adenine (A) is one of four chemical bases found in DNA, along with cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Adenine bases on one strand forms chemical bonds with thymine bases on the opposite strand within the DNA molecule. The genetic instructions of the cell are encoded in a four-base DNA sequence. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a type of adenine that serves as an energy-storage molecule and is used to power several chemical reactions inside the cell.

The chemical name of adenine according to the IUPAC is 9H-Purin-6-amine.

Structure of Adenine

The structure of adenine in isolated conditions is mainly the  9H-adenine tautomer. Several other adenine structures are also found that are mostly compounds that can be rapidly interconverted and are seen as equivalents.

2D Adenine Structure: 

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3D Adenine Structure(Conformer):

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Adenine only binds to thymine (and uracil in RNA) because it only has two hydrogen bonding sites, whereas cytosine only binds to guanine because it has three hydrogen bonding sites. Cells will store their blueprint for how a life form is formed using these four “code letters.” From a design standpoint, the way these hydrogen bonds keep the nucleic acid strands together to form the double helix while still allowing them to “unzip” for replication and transcription is remarkable. This design is shared by all cells of all living organisms, no matter how basic or complex they are.

Properties of Adenine

C5H5N5is the chemical formula for adenine, a purine nucleobase. Purines are heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds that are heterocyclic in nature. Adenine is made up of two carbon rings: a pyrimidine ring and an imidazole ring, making it a purine. It is referred to as adenine residue when it is a component of DNA and is covalently connected to the deoxyribose sugar.     

             Molar mass:        135.13 g/mol

            Appearance:         White to light yellow, crystalline

                    Density:         1.6 g/ cm³(calculated)

         Melting point:         360 to 365 °C (680 to 689 °F; 633 to 638 K) decomposes

Solubility in water:        0.103 g/100 mL

                Solubility:        Negligible in ethanol, soluble in hot water and/or aqua 

                                           ammonia

           Acidity (pKa):         4.15 (secondary), 9.80 (primary)

Adenine Formation and Other Forms

The liver is where adenine is made in the human body. Since biological systems prefer to conserve energy, adenine is normally acquired via the diet, with the body breaking down nucleic acid chains to acquire individual bases and reassembling them via mitosis. Adenine synthesis requires vitamin folic acid.

When adenine is attached to ribose, it forms adenosine, a nucleoside, and when it is attached to deoxyribose, it forms deoxyadenosine, a nucleotide; when three phosphate groups are added to adenosine, it forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a nucleotide. One of the most basic methods of transferring chemical energy between reactions in cellular metabolism is adenosine triphosphate.

Biological Functions of Adenine

Guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil are the other four main (or canonical) nucleobases; adenine is one of them. The genetic code is made up of these basic nucleobases. The genetic code for a specific protein is contained in nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA molecules, which is dependent on the sequence of nucleobases. Nucleic acids play a crucial role in cellular functions, heredity, and organism survival.

Adenine is a crucial component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is adenosine with three phosphate groups added to it, in addition to being the main component of nucleic acids. ATP is a high-energy molecule that is important for cellular metabolism and other biological processes.

The energy-rich adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the cofactors nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and Coenzyme A play a number of roles in biochemistry, including cellular respiration. It also serves as a chemical part of DNA and RNA and plays a role in protein synthesis.

Health Effects

The metabolic end product of purine metabolism, which includes adenine, is uric acid. Purines are abundant in the diet, especially in the liver, kidneys, and other internal organs. They can also be found in small quantities in beef, fish, cauliflower, beans, and mushrooms. 

Hyperuricemia is a disorder in which the body’s uric acid level is too high. A high-purine diet can cause uric acid buildup, which can lead to gout (joint inflammation) and kidney stones. As a result, people with these conditions should eat a low-purine diet. It is also recommended that you avoid or limit your intake of alcohol and saturated fats because they obstruct purine metabolism.

Biological Reactions of Adenine

• Purines are synthesised as ribonucleotides, not as free nucleobases, so adenine, like guanine, is derived from the nucleotide inosine monophosphate (IMP). The amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid are used to make IMP, which is made from a pre-existing ribose phosphate. 

5-Phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate(PRPP) is formed when ribose 5-phosphate interacts with ATP. PRRP is involved in purine and pyrimidine synthesis, as well as the formation and salvage pathways and NAD and NADP.

• When the pyrophosphate of PRRP is substituted by the amide group of glutamine, PRRP is converted into a 5-phosphoribosyl amine, which is dedicated to purine biosynthesis. Purine biosynthesis takes place in the cytosol of the liver cell of humans. After that, IMP is converted into adenosine monophosphate (AMP) or guanosine monophosphate (GMP) (GMP). The energy source for the conversion of IMP to AMP is guanosine triphosphate (GTP).

• Adenine Degradation: Adenosine » inosine (via the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase) » hypoxanthine (via the enzyme xanthine oxidase) » xanthine (via the enzyme xanthin
  e oxidase) » uric acid.

• Exogenous purines including adenine and guanine are degraded in the liver of humans and other vertebrates. Uric acid is formed as a waste product as a result of purine degradation. The liver releases uric acid into the bloodstream, which then travels to the kidney. The substance is then excreted from the body by the urine. The catalytic activity of the enzyme adenine phosphoribosyltransferase can salvage and re-use adenine from catabolism.