Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

The simplest way to understand the term polymer is a beneficial chemical made of many repeating units. A polymer can be a 3-dimensional (3D) network Imagine of a repeating unit joined together left and right, back and front, up and down or it is a 2-dimensional (2D) network Imagine of the repeating units linked together right, left, down, and up in a sheet or a 1-dimensional (1D) network Imagine of a repeating unit-linked right and left in a chain. Each unit that repeats is the “-Mer” or has a fundamental unit with “polymer” meaning multiple repeating units. The unit which is repeating is often made of hydrogen and carbon and sometimes nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, sulfur, chlorine, silicon, and phosphorus. This forms a chain, many links or “-mers” are chemically attached or polymerized together. Linking infinite strips of construction paper together to create paper garlands or attached together hundreds of paper clips to make chains, or stringing beads helps you to visualize the polymers. Polymers can occur naturally and can be made to serve particular needs. The polymers that can be manufactured can be 3-dimensional (3D) systems that do not go once formed. Such networks are called Thermoset polymers. Epoxy resins which are used in 2-part adhesives are thermoset plastics. These manufactured polymers can also be a 1-dimensional chain that can be melted. These chains are Thermoplastic polymers and can also be called Linear polymers. The Cups, Plastic bottles, Films, and fibers are Thermoplastic plastics.

Polymers are found in nature. The ultimate natural polymers are deoxyribonucleic acid i.e., DNA, and ribonucleic acid i.e., RNA that explain life. Hair, Spider silk, and horn are the protein polymers. A Starch can be a polymer as it has cellulose in wood. We use rubber tree latex and cellulose as raw materials to make fabricated polymeric rubber and plastics. The very first synthetic manufactured plastic was Bakelite, in the year 1909 for telephone casing and electrical components. The first produced polymeric fiber was Rayon, from cellulose, in the year 1910. Nylon was invented in the year 1935 while trying synthetic spider silk.

Structures of Polymers:

Many general classes of polymers are formed of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and compounds of carbon. The polymers are exactly made of carbon atoms bonded together, one to the next, into large chains that are called the backbone of the polymer. We can attach one or more other atoms to each carbon atom in the backbone chain. There are polymers that have only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Polyethylene, polybutylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, and polymethyl pentene are examples of these polymers. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has a chlorine atom attached to all the carbon backbone. The Teflon has fluorine attached to all the carbon backbone.

Other commonly produced polymers have backbones that have elements other than carbon. Nylons contain nitrogen atoms in the repeated unit of the backbone. Polycarbonates and Polyesters contain an oxygen atom in the backbone. There are also a few polymers that, alternatively of having a carbon backbone, have phosphorus or silicon backbone. These are recognized inorganic polymers.

Different Types of Polymers:

Classification of Polymers

1. Source-Based Classification

Let’s look at the first classification of polymers based on their source of origin.

The easiest method to categorize polymers is by their origin. Natural polymers arise naturally and can be found in natural sources such as plants and animals. Proteins (which have the same structure in humans and animals), Cellulose and Starch (which are present in plants), and Rubber are all common examples (which are harvested from the latex of a plant).

Synthetic polymers are polymers that can be created or synthesized in a lab by humans. These are manufactured commercially for human consumption. Polyethene (a mass-made plastic used in packaging) and Nylon Fibers are two examples of commercially created polymers that we utilize daily (commonly used in our clothes, ropes, etc.)

These polymers are polymers created in a lab by artificially altering natural polymers. These commercially essential polymers are created through a chemical reaction (in a controlled environment). Examples are vulcanized Rubber which is created by crosslinking sulphur to the polymer chains in Natural Rubber, cellulose acetate (rayon), and other materials.

2. Polymer Classification Based on the Structure

Polymers can be classified into three categories based on their structure:

These polymers have a structure that resembles a long straight chain with identical links connecting them. These are made up of monomers that are bonded together to form a lengthy chain. These polymers have a higher melting point and density than others. PVC is a good illustration of this (Poly-vinyl chloride). This polymer is commonly used in the manufacture of electrical cables and pipes.

These types of polymers have the structure of branches sprouting at random places from a single linear chain, as the name implies. Monomers combine to form a long straight chain with branching chains of various lengths. The polymers are not tightly packed together as a result of their branches. They have a low melting point and density: plastic bags and general-purpose containers made of low-density polyethene (LDPE).

Monomers are joined together to form a three-dimensional network in this type of polymer. Because they are made up of bivalent or trivalent molecules, the monomers have strong covalent bonds. These polymers are brittle and difficult to work with. Examples are bakelite (used in electrical insulators), Melamine, and other similar materials.

3. The Following Variables Can be Used to Control When Producing a Polymer:

The method in which the polymer is collected can produce either a more or less random alignment of the polymer chains or a fabric in which the chains are aligned in a particular direction.

When you change one or more of these parameters can affect the Linearity of this polymer, its average molecular weight, the tactic of side chains on the polymer backbone, and the density of the product.

Characteristics:

• Polymers are very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids in your house that are packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that explain what happens when the chemical comes in contact with eyes or skin or is ingested will indicate the need for chemical resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents simply dissolve some plastics, other plastics produce safe, non-breakable packages for aggressive solvents.

• Polymers act equally as electrical and thermal insulators. A walk by your house will strengthen this concept, as you consider all the cords, appliances, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or covered with polymeric materials. Thermal resistance is visible in the kitchen with pan and pot handles made of polymers, the coffee pot handles, the foam core of freezers and refrigerators, microwave cookware, insulated cups, and coolers. The thermal undergarments that many skiers wear are made of polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.

• The polymers are very light in mass with important degrees of power. Consider the range of applications, from toys to the frame construction of place locations, or from feeble nylon fiber in pantyh
  ose to Kevlar, which have been used in bulletproof vests. Some polymers float on water while others sink immediately. Still, while being compared to the weight of stone, concrete, steel, copper, or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight substances.

• The polymers can be prepared in different ways. Extrusion delivers thin fibers or heavy pipes or films or food bottles. Injection shaping can produce very complex parts or large car body panels. Plastics can be made into drums or be mixed with solvents to become adhesives or paints. Elastomers and some plastics extend and are very flexible. Some plastics are extended in processing to take their shape, such as soft drink bottles. Other polymers can be foamed like polystyrene polyurethane and polyethylene.

• Polymers are substances with a seemingly endless range of features and colors. Polymers have many original properties that can be further improved by a deep range of additives to increase their uses and applications. Polymers can be used to mimic cotton, silk, and wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and zinc. Polymers can also make possible products that do not easily come from the natural world, such as clean clear sheets and flexible films.

The Uses of Polymers

Polypropene has a broad range of usage in industries such as stationery, textiles, packaging, plastics, aircraft, construction, rope, toys, etc.

• Polystyrene is one of the most common plastics that is actively used in the packaging industry. Disposable glasses, bottles, toys, containers, trays, plates, tv cabinets, and lids are some of the dairy products used by us that are made up of polystyrene. It can also be used as an insulator.

• Urea-formaldehyde resins are used for making molds, adhesives, laminated sheets, unbreakable containers, etc.

• Bakelite is used for making electrical appliances such as switches, kitchen products, toys, jewelry, firearms, insulators, computer discs, etc.

Potassium bromate is an ionic compound or salt which is formed of K+ and BrO3–. It is an inorganic compound. It is a strong oxidizing agent and in India widely used in making bread. 

According to a report 84% of various types of bread products contain potassium bromate. Using potassium bromate in breads is very harmful for us as potassium bromate is carcinogen. It is banned in japan, china, UK, Canada, Brazil, Australia and New Zealand. India has also limited its use in food products. Its legal limit in India is 50 parts per million. 

Thus, potassium bromate is a white crystalline powder which acts as a strong oxidizing agent and is a bromate of potassium. Potassium bromate is also known by other names such as bromic acid or potassium salt. 

Formula of Potassium Bromate 

Structure of Potassium Bromate 

It is an ionic compound which is formed by the ionic bond between potassium ion (cation) and bromate ion (anion). It shows hexagonal crystal structure. 

Properties of Potassium Bromate 

Properties of potassium bromate are listed below –

• It is found as white crystalline powder. 

• It is a strong oxidizing agent.

• Its molar mass is 167 g.mol-1.

• Its density is 3.27 g.cm-3.

• Its melting point is 350 ℃.

• Its boiling point is 370 ℃.

• It decomposes at higher temperatures. 

• It is soluble in water. As the temperature increases, its solubility in water also increases. For example, at 0 ℃ temperature, 3.1 gram of potassium bromate is soluble in 100 ml of water while at 40 ℃ temperature, 13.3 grams of potassium bromate soluble in 100 ml of water. It reacts violently with water. 

• It is insoluble in acetone. 

• Its crystal structure is hexagonal. 

• Its non – flammable substance. 

• Its 157 mg/kg oral dose can be lethal. 

• It is a carcinogenic substance. 

• Its pH is in the range of 5 – 9 at 25 ℃ temperature. 

Preparation of Potassium Bromate 

It is produced by using bromine gas and potassium hydroxide. When bromine gas is passed over the hot potassium hydroxide, it produces potassium hypobromite. Potassium hypobromite on disproportionation gives potassium bromate. Potassium bromide and water are produced as byproducts. Reaction is given below –

3Br2 + 6KOH 🡪 KBrO3 + 5KBr + 3H2O

Another method of preparation of potassium bromate includes electrolysis of potassium bromide solution. On electrolysis of aqueous solution of KBr, potassium bromate is obtained. As at 0 ℃ temperature, potassium bromide shows very much higher solubility than potassium bromate so, after the formation of potassium bromate, solution is cooled to 0 ℃ and all potassium bromate gets precipitated while all potassium bromide remains in the solution. 

These both the methods of production of potassium bromate are very much similar to the production of chlorates. 

Uses of Potassium Bromate 

Potassium bromate is used in baking as an additive. It has been used as an oxidizing agent and dough conditioner commercially for making breads since 1923. It improves baking properties of flours/ doughs by strengthening the wheat gluten network. Thus, it improves gas retention in baked foods and increases their volume. Till 1980s and 1990s, it was used at large scale by most of the countries but recently its usage has dropped due to its carcinogenic properties. 

Its oxidizing nature is the reason of its use as an additive in baking products. It oxidizes sulfhydryl groups of proteins and forms disulfide bridges by joining two molecules of protein. Thus, it helps in cross linking pf protein molecules. This cross linking of protein molecules helps in trapping the gas evolved during baking process more effectively. Action of potassium bromate in protein cross linking is shown below by a diagram –

Protein chain 1 and 2 become a larger protein molecule by cross linking.

If the baking of dough is not done completely at high enough temperature then a residual amount of potassium bromate will be left in the baked product and if it is consumed raw then being a carcinogen, it is very harmful for health. 

It can also be used in the production of malt barley but during its usage in malt production as well guidelines by food and drug administration must be followed. 

It has been banned by many countries to use it as a food additive after the report of its carcinogenic properties. According to a study in Japan, potassium bromate causes cancer in rats and mice so it can cause cancer in humans as well. Further studies are still going on. 

India has also given the guidelines for its limited use. According to FSSAI, the legal limit of potassium bromate as a food additive is 50 parts per million. Potassium bromate has been removed from the list of permissible additives by FSSAI. 

Potassium Bromate: Summary in Tabular Form 

This ends our coverage on the topic “Potassium bromate”. We hope you enjoyed learning and were able to grasp the concepts. We hope after reading this article you will be able to solve problems based on the topic. If you are looking for solutions of NCERT Textbook problems based on this topic, then log on to website or download Learning App. By doing so, you will be able to access free PDFs of NCERT Solutions as well as Revision notes, Mock Tests and much more.

Potassium Thiocyanate is a chemical semiquinone, which is an excited state of nitric oxide. When dissolved in water, this substance produces a dark blue solution. Potassium Thiocyanate, or “thiocyanate of potash”, is a reactive substance and is often used as a bleach and as a disinfectant. It is also used in the preparation of silver thiosulfate and to inhibit corrosion at steel joints.

Potassium Thiocyanate has many uses, such as bleach and as a disinfectant. It is also used in the preparation of silver thiosulfate and to inhibit corrosion at steel joints. It is a reactive substance, which means it can be used in various applications. Potassium Thiocyanate is most often used as a salt.  The potassium thiocyanate anion is the least-reactive salt of the thiocyanate ions.

Potassium Thiocyanate is a semiquinone, meaning an excited state of nitric oxide. When dissolved in water, this substance produces a dark blue solution. When dissolved in water, this substance produces a dark blue solution.

Importance of Potassium Thiocyanate

The importance of the compound, Potassium Thiocyanate, is changing as new scientific studies are being released. The potassium thiocyanate anion is the least-reactive salt of the thiocyanate ions and is a semiquinone, meaning an excited state of nitric oxide. When dissolved in water, this substance produces a dark blue solution. When dissolved in water, this substance produces a dark blue solution and is a reactive substance that has many uses.  The United States Department of the Treasury’s Bureau of Engraving and Printing uses potassium thiocyanate as an oxidizer in scientific formulation for growing synthetic fibers such as nylon. This compound is used as a salt or as a chemical to study potassium thiocyanate anion as an oxidizer in the scientific formulation.

Best ways to study Potassium Thiocyanate

1. Learn the rules – It is important to learn the rules of potassium thiocyanate. If you can learn the rules that are in place then you will most likely be able to understand the meaning that is associated with it.

2. Practice – If you want to be able to master potassium thiocyanate then you will need to practice the rules that are associated with it. It is always best to practice so you can get better so you can be able to master it.

3. Practical usage – It is important to gain practical usage of the rules of potassium thiocyanate. If you want to be able to master it then it is crucial to spend as much time as you can mastering the practical usage of it.

4. Practice mock tests – It is important if you want to master potassium thiocyanate that you take the time on a weekly basis to do a mock test. This helps you be able to have a more thorough understanding of the rules of potassium thiocyanate.

More About Thiocyanate

The molecular formula of potassium thiocyanate is KSCN and it is a chemical compound. It is one of the pseudohalides and is an important salt of the thiocyanate anion. It is an inorganic salt and has a very low melting point as compared with other inorganic salts. It contains potassium, nitrogen atoms, sulfur, and carbon. Sulfur and potassium cyanide is fused together to form potassium thiocyanate after extraction with hot aqueous alcohol, cooling and evaporating. KSCN is a colorless chemical and has transparent prismatic crystals that are highly hygroscopic. The chemical has a cooling and saline taste and it is odorless. Some of the other names of potassium thiocyanate are potassium rhodanide and potassium rhodanide.  

About Potassium Thiocyanate

Potassium Thiocyanate is basically an inorganic potassium salt. The said chemical formula of the particular compound is KSCN. The density of Thiocyanate is 1.89 grams per cubic centimeter. It appears between colorless to white colored crystals or as a crystalline powder. Its molecular weight is 97.181 grams per molecule. Potassium thiocyanate has a very high boiling point i.e. 500 degrees Celsius. Comparatively, its melting point is very low, it is only 173 degrees Celsius. However, the chemical is not soluble in water. 

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Physical Properties of Potassium Thiocyanate

This chemical is odourless as well as colourless chemical. As per experts, you can find its appearance to be similar to deliquescent crystals. Its heat capacity is 298.15 KJ/mol.K and its solubility is 177 g/100ml in water.

Chemical Properties of Potassium Thiocyanate

Potassium thiocyanate is a highly reactive chemical. It reacts quickly with metals to form a thiocyanate of it. For example, when iron nitrate and potassium thiocyanate react in the presence of water, the reaction produces iron thiocyanate, potassium oxide and nitric acid. Let’s take another example: when iron chloride and potassium thiocyanate react, it forms iron thiocyanate and potassium chloride. The chemical reaction for both the examples are given hereunder:

3H₂O + 2Fe(NO₃)₃+ 6KSCN → 2Fe(SCN)₃+ 3K₂O + 6HNO₃

FeCl₃ + 3KSCN → Fe(SCN)₃ + 3KCl

Health Hazard Data of the Chemical

Potassium thiocyanate is a chemical that is skin and eye irritant and is highly toxic when ingested in a body. Direct eye contact will cause redness and a lot of pain. And direct skin contact will cause irritation in the local areas. Ingestion in the body will cause headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,  and faintness.

Different Treatments for Thiocyanate Infections

• Skin: It is advisable to immediately remove all the contaminated clothes you are wearing and then wash the affected area with the help of soap or mild detergent. Also, Do not ever forget to make use of large amounts of water to wash the affected area until all of the chemicals have been removed. Kindly wash the affected area for approximately 15 minutes to be safe. Wash contaminated clothing before you start using it again.

• Eyes: If the eyes get infected, make sure that you­ immediately wash your eyes properly. Use a large quantity of water to wash the eyes until all evidence of the chemical has been removed. Wash for approximately 15 minutes. However, if the irritation or pain still continues, do seek immediate medical attention.

• Inhalation: ­ leave the room and rush for fresh air. If the breathing process has been hindered, make use of an artificial respiration device. Make efforts to keep the body warm and take ample rest. However, if irritation still persists or develops, go to a doctor immediately.

Uses of Potassium Thiocyanate

Potassium Thiocyanate has immense uses in diverse industries, such as textile, fiber, agricult
ure, metal, steel, as well as in construction. In most of the cases, the said chemical can be used as an analytical reagent. Also, many industries make use of the chemical in the process of synthesis of antibiotics as well as major pharmaceutical products. In addition, thiocyanate can be used for electroplating of different metals as well as surfaces. 

Here are the Diverse Uses of Potassium Thiocyanate:

As a reagent in the analytical chemistry;

As a corrosion inhibitor in the field of water treatment industry;

As a perfect intermediate in the pesticide manufacturing;

Used as a stabilizer as well as a sensitizer in the photographic field;

Also used in the metallurgy industry for the extraction of rare elements, such as thorium, hafnium, zirconium, etc.

Thiocyanate can be used for the synthesis of different pharmaceutical products, 

You can paint KSCN on a surface to keep it colourless.

Benzene is basically just an Organic compound. Some of its characteristics are: –

It is an aromatic hydrocarbon; whose chemical formula is C₆H₆.

Where is It found?

Benzene is present in crude oil, which is unrefined petroleum. Also as a natural byproduct of oil refining.

Structure

As you know, carbon usually can form just 4 single bonds. And as benzene has six carbon molecules and six hydrogen molecules, no structure could account for all the bonds, the structure of Benzene has remained a mystery. It was the chemist Kekulé who finally found the answer to this mystery when he saw a dream about a snake eating itself, it gave him the idea of a ringed structure. Which led him to develop a six Carbon membered ring, each attached to one hydrogen atom. The benzene ring forms three delocalized π -orbitals shared with all six of the carbon atoms, with respect to the molecular orbital theory. Whereas, valence bond theory suggests two stable resonance structures for the ring.

Discovery of Benzene

Benzene was first discovered in illuminating gas, by Michael Faraday who was an English Scientist. The origin of the word Benzene was from gum benzoin which was known as an aromatic resin.

Preparation

Benzene can be prepared in many ways: –

1. Decarboxylation of Sodium Benzoate

This is the laboratory method to obtain Benzene from Sodium benzoate. In this process, Sodium benzoate and Soda-lime (Sodium Hydroxide, along with Calcium Oxide) is heated which causes decarboxylation i.e., removal of carbon dioxide, to produce Benzene and Sodium Carbonate as the by-product.

2. Heating Phenol with Zinc

To make Benzene from Phenol, Phenol reacts with Zinc dust at a higher temperature, the phenol is converted to a phenoxide ion and a proton, which accepts an electron from Zn forming an H radical. Which results in the formation of ZnO and the phenoxide ion that was formed, converts itself into Benzene.

3. Polymerization of Ethyne

To produce Benzene from Ethyne (acetylene), it has to undergo cyclic polymerization. For this, Ethyne is made to pass through a red hot tube at a temperature of 873K, which in turn, converts itself into Benzene.

4. Reduction of Benzenediazonium Chloride

Making Benzene from Benzene-Diazonium Chloride requires the reduction of Benzenediazonium chloride with hypophosphorous acid at room temperature, resulting in the formation of Benzene and the reagent will get oxidised to phosphorus.  

5. Hydrolysis of Sulfonic Acid

Hydrolysis of Sulfonic acid, accompanied by superheated steam produces Benzene from sulphonic acid.

Properties of Benzene

• Benzene is immiscible in water and cannot form a homogeneous mixture with it.    Whereas, it is soluble in organic solvents.

• Benzene is a liquid, colourless aromatic compound which has an aromatic odour.

• Benzene is highly inflammable and upon combustion, will produce a sooty flame.

• Benzene shows resonance and can exist in different forms depending upon the position of the double bond, making it extremely stable.

• Benzene is found to be lighter than water as the density of Benzene is 0.87g cm³

• Benzene has a moderate boiling point of 80.5oC and a high melting point of 5.5oC.
  

Resonance of Benzene

The usual representation of the structure of Benzene consists of 3 double bonds and three single bonds drawn as 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene or 2,4,6-cyclohexatriene However, the real structure of Benzene is like a hybrid of the two as all the electron density flows through all P-orbitals equally. Therefore, every side, in reality, forms a bond that is an intermediate of a single and a double bond, which keeps oscillating, inside the ring. All the carbon atoms that are present inside this ring have sp² hybridization. As there are two sp² hybridised orbitals, one of these, attaches itself to the sp² hybridised orbital of the Carbon atom lying next to it, forming a C-C bond. The next sp² hybridised orbital, attaches itself to the s orbital of Hydrogen, forming a C-H bond. Therefore, forming six C-C sigma bonds and six C-H sigma bonds. Now, there are unhybridized p orbitals remaining, they will form π bonds with the next carbon atom by lateral overlap.

Aromaticity of Benzene

What makes Benzene an Aromatic Compound?

In Benzene, the bond between two Carbon atoms (C-C) are neither single nor a double bond. Instead, it forms a bond that is of intermediate length.

Aromatic compounds are divided into two: –

Given that, they follow Huckel’s rule. According to this rule, for a given ring to be aromatic, it must have the following properties. 

1. The compound must be planar.

2. There should be complete delocalization of the π electrons in the ring.

3. Should have the presence of (4n + 2) π electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)

Uses of Benzene

Benzene is an industrial chemical that is widely used in the production of pesticides, resins, detergents, synthetic fibres, plastics, drugs, dyes. Benzene can be naturally produced from volcanoes and forest fires. It evaporates rapidly from soil and water, if it leaks from storage tanks it can lead to the contamination of water wells and water sources situated close by.

Benzene also has household uses too, but the extent of its use is limited due to its toxic and carcinogenic nature. In homes, Benzene is used in glue, adhesive, cleaning products, tobacco smoke, etc.

• It is also used to prepare phenol and aniline which is used in dyes.

•  It is used to manufacture nylon fibres.

•  Degreasing metals.

• One of the most important uses of benzene is to manufacture different chemicals such as ethylbenzene, cyclohexane, cumene, nitrobenzene, etc.

The Promethium element is represented by the symbol Pm. Promethium is a lanthanide and a rare earth metal. All the isotopes of promethium are radioactive in nature. Promethium metal emits beta radiation. As it is a rare metal, so its chemical and physical characteristics are not well known. Promethium salts have a pink or red colour that gives a pale blue-green glow to the ambient air. Promethium metal was discovered by Mariinsky in 1945.

• Electronic configuration- [Xe]4f56s2

• The atomic number of promethium- 61

• The atomic mass of promethium- 145gmol-1

Physical Properties of Promethium

Promethium is the f-block element that belongs to the group lanthanides and period 6. It is solid at 20°C.

• Melting point- 1042°C, 1908°F, 1315 K

• Boiling point- 3000°C, 5432°F, 3273 K

• The density of promethium- 7.26

Chemical Properties of Promethium

• Chemically, promethium is a lanthanide, when mixed with other elements, forms salts. It shows only one stable state of oxidation of +3. 

• Since traces of the element are extremely scarce in nature, the element is typically synthesized to produce promethium-147 by bombarding enriched uranium with thermal neutrons. 

• Promethium salts have pink or red colour with a pale blue-green light that colours the surrounding air.

Promethium Uses

1. Most promethium is used only for research purposes except for promethium-147, which can be found outside laboratories. It is obtained in milligram quantities as oxide or chloride. This isotope does not emit gamma rays, and its radiation has a relatively small depth of penetration in the matter and a relatively long half-life.

2. Promethium used as a pacemaker. A luminous paint containing a phosphor that absorbs the beta radiation emitted by promethium-147 and emits light is used by some signal lights.

3. In atomic batteries, by sandwiching a small promethium source between two semiconductor plates, the beta particles emitted by promethium-147 are converted into electric current. These batteries have a lifetime of approximately five years. Promethium is often used to measure the thickness of materials by measuring the amount of radiation from a promethium source that passes through the sample. Potential applications can be made for portable X-ray sources and as auxiliary heat or power sources for space probes and satellites.

Precautions

• The promethium does not have a biological function. During its beta decay, Promethium-147 will emit gamma rays that are harmful to all life forms.  encounters with small amounts of promethium-147 are not dangerous If certain precautions are taken. In general, gloves, footwear covers, safety glasses, and an outer layer of protective clothing that can be quickly removed should be used.

• Promethium mainly affects bone tissue. It is not risky to have a sealed promethium-147. If the packaging is impaired, however, then promethium becomes harmful for the environment and humans. The polluted area should be cleaned with water and soap if radioactive contamination is detected.

Did You Know?

There in the Andromeda galaxy is the peculiar star HR 465, which contains a lot of Promethium. It is very radioactive and rare, very little has been studied: it is not well described in its chemical and physical properties.

Protium is the basic hydrogen atom with a single proton circled by a single electron. An isotope of an element is defined as an atom that has a similar number of protons but with a differential number of neutrons. Protium is given as the regular version of hydrogen and can be represented by the letter-H. Protium also contains one proton and zero neutrons. At the same time, deuterium contains one neutron and one proton – unlike the common hydrogen atom, which has one proton, one electron, and zero neutrons.

It can be defined as the basic hydrogen or H-atom that has a single proton encircled by a single electron. An isotope can be defined as an atom that has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons or neutral ions. Protium is very similar to hydrogen and is also written as H. It has only one proton or positive ion and no neutrons. Similarly, there are elements like deuterium which has one neutron and a single proton as compared to a hydrogen atom that has one proton, no neutrons and one electron or negative ion. Protium is the most common isotope we can find of Hydrogen. The H-atom is actually the chemical element of hydrogen. The atom has an electron and a proton which is attached to the nucleus due to Coulomb force. The atomic number of Protium is 1 and the atomic mass number of Protium is also 1. A single proton is present in the nucleus and an electron in the 1s orbit. 99.8% of hydrogen that occurs naturally has this isotope. The hydrogen isotopes are placed in the same position as that of the periodic table because all of them have one proton. They show the same chemical properties, the reason being the same electronic configuration. They have some different physical properties as it depends on mass.

Protium Symbol

The lighter isotope of hydrogen is referred to as ”protium” but with no chemical symbol other than 1H, which has been assigned to it. Subsequently to the deuterium discovery, the third isotope of hydrogen of the relative mass of order three was found to exist. Atoms of similar elements can contain different numbers of neutrons; the different possible versions of every element are referred to as isotopes. The numbers of both protons and electrons are similar for every isotope because they define the element, including its chemical behaviour.

The element symbol of an isotope is given as:

A = EZ

Where

Z = number of protons = number of electrons = atomic number

A = number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number

The shorthand writing for the isotopes protium of element symbol is H1

Protium Structure

Protium is the most common isotope of hydrogen, which is also called a hydrogen atom. A hydrogen atom is defined as an atom of the chemical element hydrogen. The electrically neutral atom consists of a single positively-charged proton and a single negatively-charged electron, which are bound to the nucleus by the coulomb force. The most abundant isotope is given as protium, hydrogen-1, or light hydrogen contains zero neutrons, and other isotopes of hydrogen such as deuterium contain either one or more neutrons.

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Protium on the Periodic Table

Hydrogen has been placed along with the elements of group 1 in the long form of the periodic table also, but it is separated slightly to indicate its distinctive character and thereby to confirm the views of the Mendeleev.

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Protium can be represented using the symbol H. The atomic number of protium is given as one and the protium mass number is given as 1. It also contains one electron in its 1s orbital and one proton in its nucleus. And, the naturally occurring hydrogen holds 99.985% of this isotope.

Hydrogen isotopes occupy the same and exact position in the periodic table because all of them hold one proton each. Their chemical behaviour is the same because of the similar electronic configuration. However, they vary in the physical properties, which are mass-dependent.

Atomic and Physical Properties of Protium

A few atomic and physical properties of the three isotopes can be given as follows: 

Protons Vs Protium

As the name at times, protium is used for hydrogen molecules or atoms in which the nuclei are protons – hydrogen-1, to provide it with another name. This is to differentiate it from deuterium, which contains atoms with a nucleus consisting of hydrogen-2, a proton, and neutron. (Or tritium, the hydrogen-3 with two neutrons, but tritium is radioactive too) Protons are defined as the hydrogen nuclei without the attached electron.

 

Finding Protons

Protons and neutrons (which are collectively known as nucleons) are found in the nuclei. On Earth, they are found in the complex nuclei form, for example, Carbon with six protons and six neutrons. These nuclei were created in the previous generations of stars , where the Sun is likely in the third generation of stars (confusingly known as a Population 1 star). The debris cloud’s heavier elements that formed the Sun are what became planets.

Only about 5 percent of the galaxy’s mass is in stars, with the rest in gas clouds and others in non-collapsed structures. Primarily, this gas is molecular hydrogen or
atomic, meaning that most of the nucleons present in the Universe are isolated protons. All in, about 70 percent of the nucleons in the Universe are present in hydrogen.

Referring Protium

Protium can refer to:

• Hydrogen-1 or Protium (isotope), which is the most common isotope of hydrogen element, having one proton, one electron, and zero neutrons

• Protium (plant), which is a genus of chiefly tropical American trees present in the family Burseraceae, having the fragrant wood

• Cadence Protium, which is a hardware-accelerated prototyping platform for early software development by the Cadence Design Systems

Uses of Protium

• Protium contains pantoprazole, which is given as an active ingredient.

• Protium is also a selective “proton pump inhibitor,” which is a medication that reduces the produced amount of stomach acid.

• It can be used to treat intestine and stomach acid-related illnesses