Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

Leucine is a type of amino acids which is received through the hydrolysis of most common proteins. The first amino acids that were discovered in the wool and muscle fibre, leucine amino acids, were discovered in large proportions in haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying red pigment blood cells. This substance is among the several so-called amino acids for fowls, rats, and human beings who cannot synthesize it but obtain it from dietary sources. On the other hand, this leucine amino acid in microorganisms and plants is synthesized from pyruvic acid, a product breakdown from carbohydrates. When the hydrolysis of dietary proteins takes place, it forms a white crystalline form of amino acid with a chemical formula C6H13NO2. 

State About Leucine and Isoleucine 

The 20 naturally existing amino acids in the human body contain leucine and isoleucine. Structurally, both these amino acids are very much alike, but there are slight differences observed in their physiological properties. Leucine isoleucine, both the amino acids, are aliphatic and non-polar, with four carbon chains arising from the basic amino acid structure. The skeletal structure of leucine isoleucine looks very much similar. These two contain the same carboxyl and amino functional groups with the same size, but their side chain layout is distinct. These are a perfect example of structural isomers, where the carbon atoms occupy different positions. 

Solved Questions and Answers

I. Explain the Three Branched-Chain Amino Acids with Reference to Leucine Isoleucine Valine? 

Ans. The branched-chain amino acids consist of a group of three essentials known as the leucine isoleucine valine. These three amino acids are often grouped together because they have a chain that branches off to one side. These three branched-chain amino acids constitute 35% of human muscle protein and 40% of preformed amino acids needed by mammals in a combined quantity. In plants, the synthesis of BCCA takes place in every location within the plastids of the cells and are determined by the presence of mRNAs encoding enzymes in the metabolic pathways. The BCCAs contribute to both metabolic and physiological functions. The metabolic functions include protein synthesis and turnover, metabolism of glucose, and signalling of the pathways. For the physiological part, these contribute to brain function and the immune system. 

II. How Acetyl Leucine is Used in the Treatment Process?

Ans. Acetyl leucine is a type of modified amino acids. With the advance in medical sciences, this amino acid has been found effective in the treatment procedure of several diseases. The standard treatment procedures include vertigo, dizziness, and cerebellar ataxia. A company called IntraBio is looking for possible ways to include this amino acid in the cure of several neurological disorders. Some clinical trials using acetyl leucine are on-process for treatments like three orphan, fatal, and neurodegenerative disorders. It is also considered for some commonly inherited and acquired neurological diseases such as migraine, restless leg syndrome, lewy body dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis. 

III. What is the Role of Leucine Protein Supplements in the Body? 

Ans. Today, many dietary supplements are based on the leucine protein that is found to degenerate the muscle tissues and improve the synthesis of muscle proteins. This synthesis of muscle protein is responsible for the building of the tissues in the body. Hence, diets need to be optimized with leucine proteins which can further boost muscle growth and repair. This mainly depends on how much leucine your protein contains. There are many healthy sources of leucine obtained from food like whey protein, soy protein, pea protein, soybeans, beef, hemp, and fish sources. 

IV. Role of Leucine in the Human Body?

Ans: The general function of the leucine in the human body is to regulate the muscle structure. It mainly contributes to protein synthesis and protein breakdown, especially in the muscle tissue recovering the damage from physical trauma. Some other functions involve increasing the level of insulin in the blood. It is vital for regulating the blood sugar level involving gluconeogenesis in the liver. This helps the muscle and body to heal. 

Did You Know? 

Having leucine amino acids in the diets can improve the conditions of ones detected with pre-diabetes or metabolic syndrome. This improved insulin sensitivity and the overall metabolism of substances like sugar and fat. 

Lithium bromide is an ionic compound of lithium and bromine. Lithium is an alkali metal that has 3 electrons. The electronic configuration of lithium is 2,1. Thus, it has 1 electron in its valence shell. On the other hand, bromine is a non – metal that has 35 electrons in its single atom. Its electronic configuration is 2,8,18,7. Thus, it has 7 electrons in its valence shell. Lithium can attain electronic configuration like nearest noble gas He by donating one electron while bromine can attain electronic configuration like nearest noble gas Kr by accepting one electron. So, Li donates one electron to bromine and forms an ionic bond. Thus, both the elements get stability by attaining electronic configuration like nearest noble gas and form a new compound LiBr. 

An Interesting Salt Lithium Bromide (LiBr)

Lithium (Li) is the 3rd element in a series of elements as mentioned in a periodic table. It can chemically combine with the Bromine (Br)element to form a chemical compound called Lithium bromide (Libr). It is a type of salt as sodium chloride (NaCl) but what differs it from other salts is that it is extremely hygroscopic in nature. This property of Lithium bromide makes it a very useful substance in various places. Though it is available naturally due to its large amount of use, it is now being produced artificially by industrial methods.  To produce Lithium bromide lithium carbonate and hydrobromic acid are used. Both the compounds are suspended in water to come closer and react. In this mechanism, Lithium Bromide precipitates down in that aqueous solution. 

The most popular use of Lithium bromide is its use in Air conditioning systems as a desiccant and rarely in absorption refrigerators as a heat-absorbing salt.  The other uses of Lithium bromide include its use as a catalyst for oxidation and hydroformylation of organic compounds or sometimes for their deprotonation and dehydration. In medical science, it is also used for the purification of various steroids that are used for treating ailments or suppressing pain. Lithium bromide is also infamous as a  sedative of the early 2oth century. So it can be said that Lithium bromide has some psychoactive properties. Another great use of Lithium bromide is that it is used as a drug to treat bipolar disorder.

Properties of Lithium Bromide 

Physical and chemical properties of lithium bromide are listed below –

• It is soluble in water. Its solubility in water increases, as the temperature increases. For example, its solubility in water is 143 g/100 ml at 0 oC and as the temperature reaches up to 20 oC, its solubility becomes 166.7 g/100ml. 

• It is also soluble in methanol, ethanol, ether, acetone etc. It is slightly soluble in pyridine. 

Cl2 + 2LiBr → Br2 + 2LiCl 

Structure of Lithium Bromide 

In lithium bromide, an ionic bond is formed by the transfer of an electron from lithium to bromine. As lithium donates an electron so it forms a cation or gets a positive charge Li+. While bromine accepts an electron, it forms an anion or gets a negative charge Br–. The crystal structure of lithium bromide is cubic.

Production of Lithium Bromide 

Lithium bromide can be prepared by many methods. A few of them are listed below –

Li2CO3 + 2HBr → 2LiBr + H2CO3

  LiOH + HBr → LiBr + H2O

Uses of Lithium Bromide 

Lithium bromide is used in many fields. A few of its uses are listed below –

Magnesium phosphate is an ionic compound composed of the magnesium cation (Mg2+) and phosphate anion (PO43-). This is a salt with a hydrated crystalline structure. Being hydrated, the water of crystallization is found in the crystal structure of magnesium phosphate. It is found in amorphous forms also. The chemical formula of magnesium phosphate is Mg3(PO4)2  and magnesium phosphate chemical formula has the molecular weight of 262.855 g/mol. This salt is found in nature as hydrated monomagnesium phosphate, dimagnesium phosphate or trimagnesium phosphate.  It appears as a white crystalline powder. It has a density of 2.195 g/mL at 298K. It has a melting point of 1457K.

 

Structure of Magnesium phosphate

In the most common magnesium phosphate, three divalent magnesium cations and two phosphate anions are attracted by means of the electrostatic force of attraction and an electrovalent structure of magnesium phosphate is produced. Molecules of water of crystallization may be attached to their crystals also. 

 

Different Types of Magnesium Phosphate

Besides the most common form dimagnesium phosphate(Mg3(PO4)2.xH2O) different types of hydrated structures like monomagnesium phosphate, dimagnesium phosphate are found. Their chemical formulae are Mg(H2PO4)2.xH2O, MgHPO4.xH2O respectively. 

 

Preparation of Magnesium Phosphate

Trimagnesium phosphate can be prepared in the laboratory by neutralizing tribasic orthophosphoric acid with magnesium hydroxide. The chemical equation is-

2H3PO4 + 3Mg(OH)2 = Mg3(PO4)2 + 6H2O

 

Monomagnesium phosphate tetrahydrate occurs in equilibrium with dimagnesium phosphate trihydrate. Dimagnesium phosphate trihydrate can be prepared by the action of aqueous solution of any magnesium salt on any diacidic base or diammonium orthophosphate solution.

 

Chemical Nature of Magnesium Phosphate

Magnesium phosphate is a hydrated crystalline white powder with no odor. X-ray diffraction studies are utilized to detect the nature of chemical bond formation. 

 

Action of water

It is a water-soluble salt, which on the addition of water produces magnesium hydroxide and orthophosphoric acid which is just the reverse reaction of its formation.

Mg3(PO4)2 + 6H2O = 2H3PO4 + 3Mg(OH)2

 

Action of Hydrochloric Acid

Magnesium phosphate reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride salt and orthophosphoric acid.

Mg3(PO4)2+ HCl = MgCl2 + H3PO4

 

Calcium Magnesium Phosphate

Calcium magnesium phosphate or calcium magnesium orthophosphate has the molecular formula of CaMgO4P+. It is a special class of magnesium phosphate where calcium ions are also included. 

 

Uses of Magnesium Phosphate

Magnesium phosphate is a good source of both magnesium and phosphate. It is mostly used as a food stabilizer in the formulation of infant processed foods in order to fulfill proper nutrients and used as supplements. 

 

Importance of Magnesium Phosphate for Human Health

Magnesium is an important macronutrient of the body. Magnesium phosphate is an essential substance in the formation of bones and muscles. It is very important for relaxation of the muscle. In order to avoid muscle cramping, it must be used. It supports the membrane, maintains normal muscle activity including heart, helps in the metabolism of carbohydrate, protein, and fat, helps in the manufacture of protein, regulates nerve cells. Besides, it is important in the formation of teeth. 

 

Proper Dosage of Intaking Magnesium Phosphate

Less than 350 mg daily is the safe dosage for intaking magnesium phosphate in healthy adults, otherwise, it would be fatal to intake an m much higher dosage as there are lots of side effects.

 

Side Effects 

Regular and long term usage of a high dosage of magnesium phosphate can cause an imbalance of magnesium and phosphate in the body. As a result, it can cause nausea, vomiting, stomach upset, headache, constipation, diarrhea, tiredness, mental confusion or other problems. It can decrease blood pressure too. The most fatal part of these side effects may be an irregular heartbeat, breathing problems, coma, and ultimately, death. So, it is very important to continue its medicinal use as a proper dosage.

 

Food Sources of Magnesium and Phosphate

Many food sources are very much rich in magnesium and phosphate. Dark chocolate, avocado, nuts, legumes, tofu, flax, pumpkin, fatty fishes like salmon, mackerel, banana, spinach, mustard are the rich sources of magnesium. Besides, chicken, pork, seafood like cuttlefish, crab, salmon, catfish, dairy products, pumpkin, sunflower oil, nuts are important sources of phosphorus. 

 

Signs of Deficiency

Magnesium deficiency is caused by a low magnesium diet for an extended period, malabsorption, and substantial losses from alcohol consumption or the use of drugs that deplete magnesium. The signs of deficiency include:

 

Signs of Toxicity

Toxicity from food is uncommon since the kidneys eliminate excess magnesium in the urine. Long-term usage of high-dosage supplements, on the other hand, may result in hazardous amounts. People with kidney disease have a higher risk of poisoning because their kidneys aren’t operating correctly and can’t filter out excess magnesium. Signs of toxicity are:

Risk Factors of Deficiency

Alcohol Abuse – Long-term excessive alcohol consumption is linked to a low-magnesium diet, a digestive disturbance that leads to malabsorption, and issues with multiple organs that can cause too much magnesium to be flushed out through urine.

Older Age – According to national dietary studies, the elderly consume less magnesium. Magnesium absorption in the stomach decreases with age, whereas excretion in the urine increases. Furthermore, older persons are more likely to be on chronic illness drugs that reduce magnesium stocks.

Conditions with malabsorption – The quantity of magnesium absorbed can be reduced by diseases that interfere with digestion. The ileum, the biggest portion of the small intestine, absorbs the majority of magnesium, which can be affected in disorders like celiac and Crohn’s disease. The ileum is occasionally removed after surgery for colon cancer, ulcerative colitis, or Crohn’s disease, which increases the risk of insufficiency.

Type 2 diabetes – Insulin resistance or uncontrolled diabetes can lead the kidneys to produce more urine to flush out excess blood sugar levels. Magnesium may be flushed out as a result of the increased volume of urine.

Did You Know

• Only one cup of chicken contains 330 grams of phosphorus. 

• Dark chocolates are rich in magnesium so eating chocolates is sometimes good for health.

• Previously, it was thought that magnesium and calcium were the same elements.

• When magnesium wire is burnt in the presence of air or oxygen, magnesium oxide is produced producing white light. This property is used in fireworks, flares, photographic flashbulbs, and pyrotechnics.

• Magnesium phosphate is used to prevent vitamin E deficiency. 

• Magnesium phosphate maintains the balance of other minerals of the body and helps to regulate hormonal functions.

• Magnesium phosphate is used as food supplements as magnesium phosphate powder or capsules that need to be consumed daily.

• The metal, magnesium makes up only 2 per cent of the earth’s crust.

• The name, magnesium comes from the name of a district of Greece, Magnesia, where the mineral of the magnesium, Magnesia alba was first found.

Everything in the cosmos is made up of certain components, which scientists refer to as “matter.” Everything is classified as matter, including the food we consume, the air we breathe, stones, clouds, stars, plants, animals, water, and dust.

There are many things that we may see and feel all around us. We can see a book in front of us, for example. A book takes up some room. The volume of a book is the amount of space it takes up. We can feel the weight of the book when we pick it up. As a result, we can conclude that the book has some weight. We cannot see the air around us, but if we fill a balloon with air and carefully weigh it, we will discover that air not only occupies space (bounded by the balloon) but also has mass.

A book and air are both instances of matter. Wood, cloth, paper, ice, steel, water, and oil are all examples of matter. Furthermore, the fact that we cannot move an object from one location to another without using force demonstrates that matter offers resistance. To pick up a stone from the ground, we must use force.

What is the Matter?

Matter is defined as anything that fills space and has mass. Because they all occupy space and have mass, air and water, gold and silver, table and chair, milk and oil, and so on, are all various types of matter.

Matter makes up our universe. Any substance with mass, volume, and the ability to be perceived by the senses is defined as matter. Heat, electrical energy, light energy, sound energy, magnetism, vaccum, and shadow are not considered matter because they have no mass and take up no space.

Small constituent parts make up the matter. The smallest units of matter exist. Even with a high-powered microscope, we can’t see them.

Characteristics of Matter

i)Particles are the building blocks of all matter. These particles are separated by intermolecular gaps, attract one another with a force, and move in a random pattern.

ii) All material bodies have mass and so have weight.

iii) Space is occupied by all material bodies.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

Ans. The Kinetic Theory is a useful tool for connecting the ‘micro’ and ‘macro’ worlds. The postulates of the Kinetic Theory of Matter are listed below.

Matter’s Composition: Atoms, the tiniest particles of any element or molecule, make up all matter.

ii) Particles in Motion: Matter particles are in a constant state of motion. The rotation of individual atoms or groups of atoms, as well as the motion vibration of atoms or molecules against one another or pulling against a link, are all examples of atomic or molecular motion. The kinetic energy of the particles is due to their mobility. (Kinetic energy is the energy that particles have when they are moving.)

iii) Kinetic Energy Variation: As heat energy (thermal energy) is supplied to matter, the kinetic energy of particles increases, causing them to move more violently. If the stuff is cooled, or if heat energy is taken, the process reverses.

iv) Cohesive and Adhesive Forces: Matter particles are attracted to one another by a force. If the particles are of the same sort, this force is called cohesive force; if the particles are of different kinds, it is called adhesive force.

v) Interparticular Force of Attraction: The interparticle force of attraction exists between these particles. When the distance between them grows, this force reduces, and vice versa.

Distinctiveness of Matter

• Particles of a very tiny size create a matter.

• There is intermolecular space between these particles.

• Particles continuously move, due to its intrinsic kinetic energy.

• These particles are attracted to each other. The shared force of pull is dependent on the distance between the particles. In a solid-state of matter, strong intermolecular force prevails due to restricted space between the particles. In a liquid state, the intermolecular force is weak as, their ample space in between. In gases, the strength is feeble, as there are larger spaces between the particles.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a higher concentration area to a lower concentration area. Any material, solid, liquid, or gas can diffuse. The medium in which the diffusion occurs can be of three physical states. The speed of diffusion depends on the character of interaction between the material and the medium. Diffusion is fast in gas; lighter gases diffuse faster than denser gases. Gases diffuse very quickly in the air, slowly in liquid and slowest in solid.

Factors that Affect the Rate of Diffusion

The rate of diffusion depends on the mass of the matter. Large particles move at a slower pace, resulting in a slower rate of diffusion. Lighter particles will diffuse at a faster rate. The movement of particles determines the speed of diffusion.

Particles move due to inbuilt kinetic energy. With the rise in temperature, the kinetic energy gets boosted. As the movement of particles increase, the process of diffusion quickens.

States of Matter

There are five states of matter found in-universe; solid, liquid, gas, plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate. 

Solid, liquid, and gas are most commonly found, states of matter.

Solid

The solid-state matter has definite shape and volume as the particles are closely bonded. Another characteristic of this state of matter is they have high, boiling, melting point, with high density. When an external force is applied to it, the particles only vibrate about their present position. As there is little intermolecular space, the kinetic energy is feeble to dissipate the particles. Due to high density, they cannot be compressed and unable to flow.

Liquid

In this state of matter, the kinetic energy is more robust than that of solids, due to weak molecular force. The particles flow freely in this state of matter. Due to this feature, liquids have a definite volume but do not have a definite shape. When it is poured in a container, it will take the shape of it. Due to the lack of kinetic energy, they do not rupture the borderline of the liquid form. There is more room between the atoms so that they can be compressed and able to flow. This state of matter has low density and boiling and melting point.

Gases

Due to large intermolecular space and high kinetic energy, they have no fixed shape and volume. Their density is lower than a solid or liquid state. As the particles move very fast, the rate of diffusion is quick. As they diffuse, they exert force on the interior surface of the container. This force is termed as pressure. There are several units to calculate pressure. Some common units are atmosphere (atm), pounds per square inch (psi), Pascal (Pa) and, millimeters of mercury (mmHg). 1 atm = 14.7 psi = 760mm Hg = 101.3kPa (1,000 Pascal)

Plasma

Plasma is the fourth state of matter, which is very similar to the gaseous state. Identical to gases, this state of matter has no definite shape and volume and has a lower density than solid or liquid. Plasma is the state of matter, which has been stripped out of the electrons, leaving +ve charged nuclei, known as Ions. Neutral molecules made gases, where there are an equal number of –ve charged electrons and +ve charged protons. Plasma is made of charged gas, where atoms gain or lose electrons to become positively or negatively charged. This process is called ionization. Sun and stars are made of plasma, and it is found in those celestial bodies due to high temperature.

This gas is used in neon blubs and fluorescent tubes. When current passes through this inert gas, it ionized it. As the plasma glows, it emits light.

Bose-Einstein Condensate

The concept of this form of matter was stated by Indian scientist Satyandra Nath Bose in 1920. This theory was established by Albert Einstein in 1924. This form of matter BEC (Bose-Einstein condensate) is formed by freezing gas of extremely low density. BEC is a cluster of atoms cooled near to zero temperature. Absolute zero temperature occurs at 0 Kelvin or -273.15 degrees Celsius, or -460 degrees Fahrenheit. It is not possible to achieve this temperature but likely to reach near to it by using laser cooling technology. At this temperature, the atoms stop moving, as they have no kinetic energy to do so. The atoms begin to bundle together and enter the same energy state. They become indistinguishable from a physical approach and start behaving like a single atom.

Atoms are infused with some kind of energy and fundamentals of the quantum mechanical state that energy cannot be random by nature. Due to this energy, electrons course in the elongated path, and converts to a photon of specific wavelength, when they change the orbit or energy level. When atoms come in contact within a billionth of a degree of absolute zero, some atoms begin to fall in the same energy level, becoming impossible to differentiate.

Two examples of materials containing Bose-Einstein condensate are superfluids and superconductors. Current flow through the superconductor, with virtual zero electrical resistance. Once the electricity starts, it flows indefinitely. A liquid in a superfluid flows forever.

Conclusion

Anything which possesses both mass and volume is matter. You and me, chair and table, mountain and sea all are matter. The matter is made of particles that are very tiny, only seen under a microscope and continuously moving. For instance, a drop of water consists of by and large1021 molecules. If you add a few drops of Dettol in a bucket of water, the whole pool will odor like Dettol. This simple experiment proves particles are of miniature size. There is a space between the particles which vary according to the state of the matter. These particles attract each other, more closely knitted, more is the attraction. Matter in our surrounding notes exhibits the properties of matter in a nutshell.

Introduction

Every object around us can be categorized into two types of elements: metals or non-metals. Your books, clothes, pencil, water bottle, bag, table, the door are all examples of non-metals. Therefore, it is important to know the properties of Metals and Non-Metals and how to distinguish between them.

The Periodic Table

The periodic table comprises an arrangement of elements based on certain chemical properties that they exhibit. The metals are arranged on the left side and the non-metals on the right side of the periodic table. The rows of the table are called periods and columns are called groups. There is a total of 92 elements that are known to be found naturally, out of which 70 are metals and 22 are non-metals.

Metals

In the above depiction of the periodic table, most of the elements are metals. There are various kinds of metals:

• Alkaline earth metals

• Alkali metals

• Transition metals

• Actinides, and

• Lanthanides

Metals which are placed on the left-hand side of the periodic table are separated from non-metals by a zigzag line that starts from Carbon (C) and runs down Phosphorus (P), Selenium (Se), Iodine (I), till Radon (Rn). Therefore, these chemical elements and everything on their right is non-metal and the row just to their left is known as semi-metals or metalloids. They have properties that are common to both metals and non-metals.

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Physical Properties

• Metals occur in the solid state. All metals are solid except with an exception for mercury which is in liquid state in its natural form.

• Metals are malleable in nature. They can be beaten into thin sheets. For example, elements such as aluminium, gold, and silver can be beaten into thin sheets for common usage purpose.

• Metals are ductile. This means that metals can be stretched into thin wires. We can make copper wires and aluminium wires. All metals are equally ductile. Only that some metals are more ductile than others for which they are used for day to day purposes.

• Metals conduct heat and electricity. It is by virtue of this property of metals that heat, and electricity can pass through them. Every metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Note: Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity, copper is also a good conductor. The worst conductor of heat is lead whereas Iron and mercury are poor conductors of electricity.

• Metals are shiny. It is due to this property of metals that they are lustrous, and they reflect the light incident on its surface. Also, metals can be polished, and this is one of the reasons why metals are used to make jewellery and desired by women and men alike.

• Metals are very strong and hard, exceptions being sodium and potassium. They can be cut with a knife.

• Metals are also known to be heavy.

• Metals are also sonorous. They produce a sound when they are rung or hit with any object.

• Metals have a high melting point and a high boiling point.

• Metals have high density.

• Metals in the form of objects are opaque and are never transparent or translucent.

Chemical Properties

• Metals easily corrode very easily and fast.

• Metals lose electrons easily. Their outer shell has 1, 2 or 3 electrons.

• Most metals form metal oxides when they come in contact with the oxygen.

• Metals have low electro-negativities, they are electropositive elements.

• Metals are also good reducing agents.

Non-Metals

The non-metal elements are those that do not possess the properties of metals. The number of non-metals on the periodic table is very less as compared to metals. Non-metals are positioned on the right side of the periodic table. Some examples of the non-metals are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur, selenium, all the halogens, and the noble gases.

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Physical Properties

• Non-metals are brittle and break into pieces when beaten. Example: Sulphur and phosphorus.

• Non-metals are not ductile so, they cannot be made into thin wires.

• Non-metals are insulators or poor conductors of electricity and heat because they do not lose electrons to transmit the energy.

• At room temperature, they can be in the state of solids, liquids or gases.

• They are non-sonorous.

• They can be transparent.

Chemical Properties

• Non-metals generally have somewhere around 4 to 8 electrons in the outer shell.

• Non-metals tend to gain or accept valence electrons.

• When they are exposed to oxygen, non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides.

• Non-metals have high electro-negativity; they are electro-negative elements.

• Non-metal elements are good oxidizing agents.

• These elements do not react with water.

Comparison of Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals

Comparison of Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals

Table of reactivity series shows order in which the metals are arranged based on their comparative reactivity.

Steps Involved in The Extraction of Metals From The Ore

Calcination and Roasting

Questions

1. Take samples of Fe, Cu, Al, Mg and note the appearance of each sample.

2. Give an example of each:

i. Metal which is liquid at room temperature.

ii. Metal which can be easily cut with knife.

iii. A metal which is a good conductor of heat.

3. Explain the meaning of malleable and ductile.

4. What do you mean by displacement reaction?

5.   Give one example of displacement reaction.

6. If you have ever seen a blacksmith beating an iron piece? What change did you find in the shape of these pieces on beating? Would you find a similar kind of change in wood log on beating?

7. Name two most malleable metals.

8. Prove the fact that metals are good conductors of electricity activity comes into equation.

9. List some physical properties of the metals.

10. Write some physical properties of non-metals.

11. What happens when sodium and water.

12. Why non – metals do not react with water?

13. Fill in the blanks:

i. Non- metal oxides are ……………… in water.

ii. Non-metals don’t lose electrons to give it to hydrogen ions of ……….

iii. In this calcination, ores are heated in the absence of oxygen where metal oxide is formed and ………………… releases.

iv. In roasting, In this perocess, metal oxide is obtained and ……………….. gas releases.

v. When metals react with salt solution, more reactive metals …………………. less reactive metals from its salt solution.

vi. Non-metals are …………… and break into pieces when beaten.

vii. Non-metals are not …………… so, they cannot be made into thin wires.

14. Give three reasons for the following:

(i) Why sulphur is a non-metal?

(ii) Why magnesium is a metal?

(iii) You are given three different samples of metals. Sodium, magnesium and copper. Write any two activities to arrange them in order of decreasing activity.

The mineral fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas are described as a special type of economic deposit. They show the geochemical accumulation of carbon and hydrogen through processes that were originally biological in nature. Coal is essentially the result of a large accumulation of land plants, while natural gas and petroleum are the results of marine species, though the possibility of any natural gas and petroleum originating in nonmarine conditions cannot be excluded completely.

Origin of Mineral Fuels

The origin of both natural gas and petroleum presents a more difficult problem compared to coal because they are fluids, and therefore they are free to migrate from their place of origin.

Formation of Coal

Relatively, the formation of coal is a straightforward geochemical process, which can be traced readily through its successive stages. The first prerequisite is a geological one: rapid deposition of plant material in conditions that prevent it from decomposing, accompanied by burial in inorganic sediments such as sandstones and shales. In the Northern Hemisphere, the great coal-forming period followed the Devonian Period (from 345,000,000 to 395,000,000 years ago), when the abundant land plants first appeared and have been named the Carboniferous Period (from 280,000,000 to 345,000,000 years ago). 

Large areas of Europe and North America were evidently low-lying swamps that hosted lush vegetation throughout this time period. Accumulated in successive layers, this vegetation died and was partly decomposed by bacteria and also other organisms to form peat. The time of bacterial decomposition came to an end with the burial of peat deposits under inorganic sediments, and the subsequent changes to coal were, most notably, mild metamorphism caused by a rise in pressure and temperature.

Chemically, this mild metamorphism was in an excessive part the expulsion of water and carbon dioxide from the coal-forming substance. The major trend in the change from peat via lignite to anthracite and bituminous coal is the increase in carbon and decrease in oxygen content. If it is carried to its ultimate conclusion, the product would be pure carbon in the graphite form. This takes place comparatively rarely, but evidence for it is given as the presence of fewer amounts of graphite in several metamorphic rocks.

Also, coal contains the inorganic material, which appears as ash when it is burned, and some of the coal ashes represent a remarkable concentration of unusual elements.

Possibilities of the Mode of Incorporation

The source of the trace and minor elements and their mode of incorporation in the coal is still not fully understood. There exist three possibilities:

1. these particular elements were taken up by the plants during their growth;

2. they were carried into the swamp of coal as the inorganic sediment’s component; or 

3. they were absorbed either at the time of or after the processes of coal-forming from circulating solutions. 

The first possibility is not favoured due to the reason growing plants seldom incorporate significant amounts of non-organic elements.

The second possibility is also unlikely due of there is no correlation, or rather an inverse correlation, between trace element concentrations and ash content. This leaves as the third most likely possibility. The presence of an excess amount of carbonaceous matter means the coal-forming environment is one of the highly reducing ones that will favour the precipitation of a few elements; the presence of sulfide ions and hydrogen sulfide will cause the chalcophile element’s (with an affinity for sulfur) precipitation; the complex organic compounds are noted for their chelating, or absorptive capacity for metallic ions. Therefore, many individual reactions are potentially available for the foreign element’s fixation in the coal substance.

Origin of Petroleum

As mentioned above, the petroleum origin is not as readily elucidated as the origin of coal due to the reason petroleum can migrate from the region where it was formed. Indeed, the presence of a commercial oil field suggests that petroleum has been concentrated from a large number of source rocks into a relatively small reservoir.

The fact that petroleum can be almost always found in marine sedimentary rocks has long been considered a basic argument in favour of a marine origin for this particular material. Certainly, it is true that some of the mineral fuels including oil have been found in metamorphic and igneous rocks, but the migration from a sedimentary source bed is the reasonable explanation for these occurrences.

The proof of a marine origin has been forthcoming in recent years by sensitive analyses of recent marine sediments that exhibit; they contain fewer amounts of petroleum hydrocarbons, evidently generated directly by the marine organisms or by their subsequent decomposition.

Natural Petroleum

While natural petroleum is a complex mixture of hundreds of different hydrocarbons, its bulk composition is surprisingly consistent, containing up to 85% carbon and 15% hydrogen. It can include fewer amounts of organic compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. Its content of the other elements is exceedingly small. Unlike coal ash, petroleum ash is not noted for its content of trace elements. However, some petroleum ash contains significant amounts of vanadium and has been used as a source of this element.