Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

Citral (C₁₀H₁₆O) is a pale yellow liquid, and it has a strong lemon-like odour. It is also called 3,7-dimethyl-2, c-octadienal. Citral can not be mixed well with water, which means it is insoluble in water, but it is soluble in ethyl odour (ethanol), Mineral oil, and diethyl ether. It is mainly used in the manufacturing of perfumes and other smelling chemicals. Moreover, citral is a combination or mixture of two different aldehydes with different structures and the same molecular formula. Citral is known for its acceptable, distinct, and lemon-like pleasant smell. Mehylionene and lonone are made from citral and used in perfumery. It can be synthesized from myrcene, and ionene can be converted into synthetic Vitamin A. 

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Properties of Citral

Two compounds are double bond isomers.

There are two types of citrals, citral A is E-isomer, and citral B is Z-isomer. Isomer geraniol has a lemon-like smell, and isomer neral has a less intense and sweeter lemon-like smell.

Physical Properties of Citral

• Citral is a clear yellow-coloured fluid with a lemon-like fragrance.

• The density of citral is 0.9 g/cm³.

• Less dense than water.

• Insoluble in water.

• The melting point of citral is <-10°C

• Citral is not persistent to alkanes and strong acid

• When heated to decomposition, it emits acrid smoke and irritating fumes.

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Citral Uses

Citral is commonly used in beverages, foods, cosmetics, and other products. Its possible carcinogenic effects were investigated because of its versatile use in many products like citral oil and citral good scents. Moreover, in the investigation, two rats – one male and one female were used. Male mice were subjected to microencapsulated pure citral (500-4000 ppm) in food for 14 weeks or two years. Well, researchers could not find any proven data of carcinogenic activity of pure citral in mice and rats (According to anonymous data).

Well, citral is used as the flavouring agent and natural additive ingredient in foods, beverages, and cosmetics. Citral has properties of the acidic environment and chemical instability; hence its application domains are limited. Well, degradation of citral has been an industrial issue for many years, and it is a challenging task for ten years. In addition, the ways of citral degradation retarding are also some of the reasons for the limited use of o citral. Decreasing temperature, removing oxygen, and neutralizing pH are some ways of the citral degradation retarding process. The antioxidation process can prevent citral degradation, but this process is not available for non-commercially extensive extraction and costly processes. Moreover, antioxidants are not always suited as some antioxidants may add undesirable colour and taste to food products. Citral is also used as ingredients of citral sigma products that are very popular.

Citral Oil

Citral is a natural substance that can be obtained from plant oils. Lemongrass oil contains 75 to 80 % citral that may be isolated through the distillation process. Some other natural sources include verbena oil and citronella oil. Citral can be obtained from myrcene. It is generally found in the peel of the orange. Because of their intense aroma and flavour are used in beverages, perfumes, cosmetics, and food. Essential oils that present citral shows antifungal, antimicrobial, antiparasitic features that make it a natural preservative. 

Citral Medicinal Uses 

Citral has beautiful features like incense, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, etc. It can also be used as a bug repellent. Here are some properties described that add values of citral to be used in medicines.

Antibacterial: Citral has strong antimicrobial properties in addition to fragrance. A study of Letters In Applied Microbiology declared that citral shows antimicrobial activity against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and fungus.

Anti-Inflammatory: Citral may also possess anti-inflammatory properties. A 2017 study on mice found that citral showed a significant decrease in TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha) levels in tests demonstrating anti-inflammatory activity.

Bug-Repellent: Citral is one of the active components of citronella oil, a common ingredient used in insect repellents and citronella candles. Citronella has been registered as a gentle, plant-based insect repellent in the United States since 1948. Some evidence suggests that citral and the other active compounds in citronella interfere with mosquito olfactory receptors.

Polymerization Reaction

The word “Polymer” is a Greek word which literally means “Many parts”. A polymer is that chemical molecule which has a long set of identical building blocks, all linked with a bond, be it ionic or covalent. The building block through which any polymer molecule is built is known as a monomer. These monomers are generally very reactive molecules. The process in which monomers are all linked together to form the long-chain polymers is called a polymerization reaction or polymerization process.

Classification of Polymerization Reaction

The classification of the polymerization process is done by taking a look at the mechanism of the reaction. The mechanism here refers to how the transformation of reactants into products happens. So, there are two types of polymerization reaction listed below:

1. Addition Polymerization Process 

Like the name “Addition” in this process, the polymers are formed when the corresponding monomers are added to each other. The structure of the polymer, i.e. if the polymer would branch or develop a long chain would depend upon three things, the catalyst used, the reaction conditions and the monomers used. There is no loss of atoms in the process. So, the law of conservation of mass and stoichiometry both are applicable in the addition polymerization process. Usually, the monomers which are used in this process are unsaturated molecules (the carbon molecules which contain double or triple covalent bonds). Additionally, there are four more sub-types of addition polymerization process:

a. Free Radical Polymerization

Free radicals are those atoms which have only one free electron in their valence shell. So, the polymerization reaction classified on the basis of free radicals in the initiation process is called free radical polymerization reaction. The formation of free radical is done in the presence of a particular catalyst known as the free radical generating initiator. Benzol peroxides or peroxides, in general, are perfect examples of the free radical generating initiator. The free radicals which are formed are highly reactive (because of just one unpaired electron instead of a proper negative or positive charge). So, when they are created, they rapidly react with other free radicals present to form longer chains of the carbon molecules known as polymers.

2. Cationic Polymerization

Polymerization reactions classified on the basis of using cations with the reacting monomers are known as Cationic Polymerization. In this polymerization, both the initiation and propagation steps occur with the help of a cation. So, the chain growth occurs when the cation transfers its charge to the reacting monomers to make them reactive. These reactive monomers now react with other monomers in a similar fashion to form the polymer.

3. Anionic Vinyl Polymerization

In this process, the anions are introduced to make the monomers reactive. These reactive anions (Usually formed when a strong Lewis base or a nucleophile transfers its charge to the reacting monomers) then react with other monomers resulting in the propagation of the chain and forming the required polymers.

4. Coordination Polymerization:

This is a special kind of free radical polymerization which happens in the presence of a particular catalyst known as the Ziegler-Natta catalyst (it is a metal complex). This catalyst allows us to control the free radicals and how they react, leading to the formation of polymers which are denser and more robust. The initiation occurs when this catalyst adds the monomer to itself. The propagation of the chain occurs when more monomeric molecules are added to the metal complex or the catalyst. The termination occurs when the added molecules of the monomers leave the metal complex as the required polymers.

2. Condensation Polymerization

In this type of reaction, the polymers are formed by elimination of simpler molecules (mainly water and small chain alcohols), thus the name condensation. The reactants are also different for the condensation polymerization reaction. Here the reactants must contain two different functional groups at the two ends of the molecule. At each step of this reaction, the molecules formed also include the same two functional groups at the two ends of the intermediate. This allows the response to further continue, and the formation of long-chain carbon molecules or polymers is completed. Also, at each step of the way, there is the elimination of smaller molecules or condensation. 

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A straightforward example of the condensation reaction is displayed above. In this reaction, the carboxylic acid group and the amine group at the ends of the two reactants, react with each other to form the long chain carbon molecule or polymer. Two molecules of water are also eliminated in the process as evident from the reaction above.

A colloid is a mixture of particles between 1 and 1000 nanometers in diameter, yet it is still capable of being evenly distributed throughout the solution. They are also referred to as colloidal dispersions because the substances remain dispersed and do not settle down on the bottom of the container.

 

These particles may either dissolve macromolecules or have a macromolecular structure produced from smaller structural units or may represent a separate phase, such as aerosols, powders, dispersions of pigments, emulsions, or even finely pigmented plastics.

 

Such multiphase colloids described above make an account of the properties of both the phases as well as the interface between them, and hence their investigation is a natural adjunct in the study of the interface, reaching down to the size of colloid particles.

Example of Colloidal Solution

Still, the use of colloids vs. crystalloids is specifically very controversial. A colloid preferred by a physician or usually by a plasma expander can work better if colloids are present instead of crystalloids. Many colloids may contain albumin that is equally osmotic to plasma and 25% of the solutions.

 

Colloids are able to pull fluids into the bloodstream. Their effects last for several days if the lining of the capillaries is normal.

 

The majority of these colloid solutions have the below characteristics.

• Thermal kinetic energy to help the mobility

• Inertial effects absence from fluids

• Either none or negligible gravitational effects

• Type of interactions due to electromagnetic radiation

• We get to see milk at home, which is supposed to be the Colloid’s best example, the shampoo that we use, a liquid hand wash we use, and, moreover, a liquid metal polisher that we usually use at home.
  

Examples of Colloids Chemistry

The colloidal dispersion properties are closely linked to the high surface area of the dispersed phase, and these interfaces chemistry. The natural combination of this colloid and surface chemistry represents a primary research space, and we can see a variety of categories of colloids depending on these basic properties.

 

The example for colloidal solution can be given as smog, fog, and sprays.

 

For these colloid examples, the dispersed phase is liquid and a dispersion medium of gas. Usually, these are termed as a liquid aerosol.

 

Examples of colloid chemistry are dust and smoke in the air.

 

For these colloid examples, the dispersed phase is solid, and the medium is gas. This is defined as a solid aerosol.

 

The large difference in surface area of colloids and attachments follows the natural fact that specific matter has a high surface area to its mass ratio, and this leads to a surface property of the as a colloidal solutions factor.

 

For example, possibly the organic dye or pollutant molecules can be removed effectively from water by the adsorption method onto particulate activated charcoal. This happens because of the high surface area of coal. This process and property are used widely for water purification and all kinds of oral treatments.

 

The bulk of liquid molecules can interact via attractive forces with a huge nearest neighbor than those at the surface. The surface molecules must have higher energy than those in bulk because they are partially freed from bonding with the neighboring molecules.

 

Work needs to be done to pull out fully interacting molecules from the bulk of liquid to create any new surface. This gives rise to either surface energy or liquid tension and therefore the stronger the molecular force between liquid molecules, the greater the work accomplished.

Types of Colloids with Examples

Colloids are classified as per the state of dispersed medium and phase.

 

Any of the Colloids with water as a dispersing medium is divided as hydrophobic or hydrophilic. It is the one where only weak attractive forces exist between the water and the colloidal particle surface.

 

The precipitation of silver chloride would be the best example, and the result ends up as colloidal dispersion. The precipitation reaction occurs too fast for ions to gather from long distances and produce large crystals. Ions are aggregated to form small particles that remain suspended in the liquid.

 

By introducing ions into the dispersing medium, a stable hydrophobic colloid can be produced to coagulate.

 

For example, milk contains a colloidal suspension of protein-rich casein micelles with a hydrophobic core. Lactose is converted to lactate and hydrogen ions when milk ferments. The protective charge on the colloidal particles’ surface is overcome, and the milk coagulates to produce clumps of curds.

 

The soil particles are often carried by river and stream water as hydrophobic colloids. Thus, the particles coagulate to form silt at the river basin when the river meets the seawater having high salt concentrations.

 

In comparison, the water treatment plants of the municipality often add salt like aluminum sulphate to clear the water. Where aluminum ions hydrated cations neutralize the hydrophobic colloidal soil particles charge, allowing the particles to aggregate and settle out.

 

In all these particular cases, the liquid is strongly absorbed onto the surface of the particle by making an interface between particle and liquid, which is the same between liquid and itself. It makes the system inherently stable because of the reduction in Gibbs’s free energy when the particles are dispersed.

Property of Colloid Particles

• Colloids are insoluble particle mixes (sometimes known as colloidal solutions or colloidal systems). They depict the microscopic dispersion of one substance as well as a suspension in another substance. In a colloid, the size of these suspended particles can range from 1 to 1000 nanometres (10-9 meters). A colloid is a combination of particles with diameters ranging from 1 to 1000 nanometers that may spread uniformly across a solution. Colloids are heterogeneous in nature.

• Colloidal dispersions are made up of particles that are substantially larger than conventional solution solutes. Colloidal particles are large molecules or clusters of smaller species that scatter light. On a macroscopic (visual) size, colloids are homogeneous, whereas solutions are homogeneous on a microscopic (molecular) scale.
  

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Classification of Colloids 

The phase of the dispersed substance and the phase in which it is disseminated are used to classify colloids. Liquids, emulsions, foams, and aerosols are examples of colloids.

• A colloidal dispersion of solid particles in a liquid is known as sol..

• Emulsion is the combination of two liquids.

• When a large number of gas particles are trapped in a liquid or solid, foam is created.

• Aerosols are microscopic liquid or solid particles suspended in a gaseous medium.
  

The Tyndall Effect is a simple method for assessing if a combination is colloidal or not. When light is shone through a true solution, it passes through it cleanly; however, when light is shone through a colloidal solution, the substance in the scattered phases scatters the light in all directions, making it visible. A flashlight shining through fog can demonstrate this. Because the fog is a colloid, the light beam is plainly visible.

Methods of Preparation

Colloids can be made in two different methods.

• Milling, spraying, or the use of shear disperses big particles or droplets to colloidal size (e.g., shaking, mixing, or high shear mixing).

• By precipitation, condensation, or redox processes, small dispersed molecules are condensed into bigger colloidal particles. Colloidal silica and gold are both made using these techniques.
  

Applications of Colloids

Colloids have a wide range of uses. Among them are the following:

1. Medicines: Colloidal medicines are more efficient since they are easily absorbed by bodily tissues.

2. Soap has a cleansing impact since it is colloidal in nature. It either adsorbs dirt particles or emulsifies oily substances stuck to the fabric to eliminate them.

3. Water purification: Certain electrolytes, such as alum, can be used to precipitate colloidal pollutants present in water. The Al3+ ions neutralize the negatively charged colloidal particles of contaminants, which settle down and allow pure water to be decanted off.

4. Latex is a colloidal solution containing negatively charged rubber particles used in the rubber industry. Rubber can be made from latex via coagulation. Rubber-plated products are made by depositing negatively charged rubber particles over the item to be rubber plated, effectively turning the item into an anode in a rubber plating bath.

Conductors are defined as the materials or substances that allow electricity to flow through them. Also, conductors allow heat to be transmitted through them. Examples of conductors are metals, the human body, Earth and animals. The human body is a strong conductor. It, therefore, offers a resistance-free route from a current-carrying wire through the body for the current to flow. Conductors have free electrons on their surface that allow the easy passage of current. This is the reason that electricity transmits freely through the conductors. 

Applications of Conductors

In certain aspects, conductors are very useful. They have many real-life applications. For example;

• To check the temperature of a body, mercury is a common material in the thermometer. 

• Aluminium finds use in the manufacture of foils for food preservation. It is also used in cooking vessels as it is a good conductor of electricity and heat.

• Iron is a common material used to conduct heat in vehicle engine manufacturing. The iron plate is composed of steel to briskly absorb heat.

• In the car radiators, conductors find their use in the eradication of heat away from the engine.

Insulators

The materials or substances that resist or don’t allow the current to pass through them are insulators. They are, in general, solid in nature. Often, in a number of systems, insulators are used as they do not allow heat to flow. The resistivity is the property that makes insulators different from conductors.

 

Some good examples of insulators are wood, fabric, glass, mica, and quartz. Insulators provide protection against fire, sound, and, of course, electricity transmission. In addition, insulators have no free electrons at all. This is the predominant explanation of why they don’t conduct electricity. 

Examples of Insulators

Some of the examples of insulators are listed below.

• Glass is the strongest insulator as it has the highest resistivity. 

• Plastic is a good insulator and is used to manufacture a variety of products. 

• A common material used in the manufacture of tyres, fire-resistant clothing, and slippers is rubber. This is because it is an insulator.

Difference between conductors and insulators

Let us look at the basic difference between conductors and insulators in a nutshell.

What is an Electrical Conductor?

If you have to give the simplest definition of electrical conductors, they are materials that allow electricity to flow easily through them. If we compare two kinds of materials and the first one allows electricity to pass through them more readily, then that material is said to be a strong conductor of electricity. Some examples of conductors of electricity are:

• Copper

• Aluminium

• Silver

• Gold

• Graphite

• Platinum

• Water

• People

An electric conductor enables electrical charges to pass through them easily. The property of conductors is called conductivity to “conduct” electricity. Such materials offer less opposition to the movement of charges, or “resistance.” Due to the free movement of electrons through them, conducting materials allow easy charge transfer.

Properties of Electrical Conductor 

In equilibrium conditions, a conductor exhibits the following properties:

• The movement of electrons and ions in them is permitted by a conductor. 

• A conductor’s electrical field is zero, allowing electrons to pass inside it. 

• A conductor’s charge density is zero. 

• Free charges occur only on the surface of the conductor. 

• Both of a conductor’s ends are at the same potential.

Many metals are strong conductors of electricity. Insulators are known as a plastic coating that covers an electrical conductor. This prevents us from an electric shock.

Conclusion

Hence conductors are important objects which offer a variety of applications.  A conductor is essential because of its property of flowing electricity and heat. Materials made of conductors and insulators have different kinds of uses.

The coupling process is a good approach to synthesize higher alkanes by joining two alkyl groups together. The Corey-House reaction is the name for this adaptable approach.

Organic reactions are chemical processes in which organic substances are involved. Addition reactions, elimination reactions, sublimation processes, pericyclic reactions, and rearrangement reactions are the most common types of organic chemistry reactions.

When the Gilman reagent is combined with an alkyl halide, it produces an alkane with a greater carbon number than the initial alkyl halide. The Corey-House reaction is useful and common in organic synthesis, however, it is confined to a 1o alkyl halide, whereas the Gilman reagents can have 1o, 2o, or 3o alkyl groups.

Synthesis of Corey-House

Alkyl lithium is formed when alkyl halides combine with lithium in dry ether.

R-X + 2Li ⇾ R-Li + LiX

This alkyl lithium combines with CuI to produce Gilman reagent, which is Dialkyl Lithium Cuprate.

2R-Li + CuI ⇾ R2CuLi + LiI

The Corey-House synthesis occurs when dialkyl lithium cuprate combines with an alkyl halide to produce an alkane.

R2CuLi + R’-X ⇾ R-R’ + R-Cu + LiX

R’-X can be methyl halide, p-alkyl halide, or sec alkyl halide in this reaction. Dialkyl lithium cuprate’s alkyl group might be methyl, primary, secondary, or tertiary.

Dialkyl lithium cuprate reacts with aryl halide, alkyl halide, and vinyl halide in this reaction.

Mechanism

Alkyl halide interacts with lithium metal and forms the alkyl lithium complex R-Li when dissolved in dry ether.

R-X can be a primary, secondary, or tertiary alkyl halide in this case.

R-X + 2Li →R-Li + LiX

The reaction of alkyl-lithium with cuprous iodide (CuI) forms lithium Dialkyl Cuprate in the second stage.

Gilman Reagents are the name for this reaction.

2RLi + CuI → R2CuLi +LiI

Importance of Corey-House Synthesis

This approach is superior to the Wurtz reaction. To make a higher hydrocarbon, an alkyl halide and a lithium dialkyl copper are combined.

R’-X + R2-CuLi ⇾ R-R’ + R-Cu + LiX

(R and R’ might or might not be the same person.)

As an example,

CH₃CH₂CH₂Br + (CH₃)₂CuLi ⇾ CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃ + CH₃Cu + LiBr

This reaction is famous for its ability to produce symmetrical, unsymmetrical, straight chain, and branched-chain alkanes.

The alkyl halide utilized should be primary for a better yield, whereas lithium dialkyl copper can be primary, secondary, or tertiary.

The reaction of an alkyl halide with a lithium dialkyl cuprate to form a new alkane, an organocopper compound and a lithium halide is Corey house synthesis. It is useful to synthesize alkane with an odd number of carbons that are not possible with the Wurtz reaction in which a mixture of alkanes is formed. If we are considering tertiary alkyl halide for a reaction then due to the steric hindrance of three alkyl groups sn2 reaction, substitution does not take place instead there exists a greater possibility of elimination reaction, leading to elimination product. The R part of R2CuLi acts as a strong conjugate base and this leads to elimination.

Corey House Synthesis Mechanism

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Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving chemical compounds. Basically in this Corey synthesis, this reaction occurs in three steps:-

• The lithium metal is treated with an alkyl halide and solvated in dry ether, which converts the alkyl halide into an alkyl lithium compound, R-Li. The starting (R-X)compound  can be primary, secondary, or tertiary alkyl halide:

R-X + 2Li → R-Li + Li-X

• The second step requires cuprous (CuI) treated with an alkyl lithium compound. This creates a lithium dialkyl cuprate compound. These compounds were first synthesized by Henry Gilman of Iowa State University, and are usually called Gilman reagents in honour of his contributions:

2RLi + CuI → R2CuLi + LiI

R’-X + R2CuLi → R-R’ + RCu + LiX

• Cross-products are formed If the second alkyl halide is not the same as the first.

• For this reaction to work successfully it is important to note that the second alkyl halide must be a methyl halide, benzyl halide, primary alkyl halide, or a secondary cycloalkyl halide. For synthesizing organic compounds the relative simplicity of this reaction makes it a useful technique.

• As R and R’ are different then it is important to note that only the cross product obtained is R–R’. but both the products i.e R–R or R’–R’ are not formed in significant quantities. An example of a cross-coupling reaction is Corey house reaction. The Corey–House synthesis is one of the earliest transition metal-mediated (or catalyzed) cross-coupling reactions to be discovered.
  

More about Importance of Corey House Synthesis

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Corey House is a powerful and practical tool for the synthesis of complex organic molecules. This reaction usually takes place at room temperature. 

• One of the features of Corey house synthesis is that the operation is a very simple, easily accessible reaction. It can be used for preparing straight-chain, branched-chain, symmetrical, or unsymmetrical alkanes. For a better product, the alkyl halide used should be primary.

• In the case of tosylates and alkyl bromides when a configurationally pure alkyl electrophile is used, inversion of configuration is observed. To give a copper(III) species the reaction is believed to process via sn-2 like mechanism which undergoes reductive elimination to give the coupling product.

• When alkyl iodides are used and cyclization products are observed, the scrambling of configuration is also observed to form for alkyl iodides with an olefin tether, both of which are indicative of the involvement of radicals.

• For this reaction to work successfully the alkyl (pseudo)halide coupling partner must be methyl, benzylic, allylic, 1° alkyl, or 2° cycloalkyl. In most cases, acyclic 2° electrophiles and 3° give unsatisfactory results. (However, see below for recent modifications that allow 2° electrophiles to be used successfully).

• On the other hand, sterically hindered organocopper reagents, including 3° and other branched alkyl reagents, are generally tolerated, However, aryl bromides, iodides, and sulfonates, which do not ordinarily undergo nucleophilic substitution in the absence of a transition metal, can be used successfully as coupling partners. 

It is exciting to run experiments and view changes in chemical structures of objects around. The crystal making process is another exciting experiment that high school students can practice in labs and learn more about science. 

Apparatus

Like any other experiment, this experiment on crystal making with salts also requires some apparatus. The apparatus required for making crystals with salt is specified below:

• 2 toothpicks

• A pair of scissors

• 1 jar

• Some water

• A string

Result

After observing for some time, the solution settles for a while and then salt crystals are formed along the strings. On observing more closely, students can see the difference between microbes that are present in them, their shape and colour, and how they are formed. The size of the crystal form will also differ such as small crystals and large single crystals. Many other observations can be made with a microscopic view of these crystals

How to Make Crystals Out of Salt?

The steps for preparing crystals from salts are specified below.

1. The first step is to heat the water of 120 ml in a pan until it starts bubbling.

2. The next step is to add Epsom or even alum for quicker results

3. The heated pan is taken off the heat and to which 60-120ml of salt is added.

4. Stirring the solution is important here so that the salt can dissolve and becomes a supersaturated solution.

5. Pouring this solution into a clean glass jar till the undissolved salt grains of the solutions also falls into the new jar.

6. The next step is to add food colour to the new jar.

7. Using a pencil, tie a string to it. The pencil has to remain balanced on top of the jar so that the string dangles easily into the water.

8. Once you put the jar into a safe place and wait for some time, you will observe the formation of crystals on the string submerged in the water.

How to Prepare Crystal Salts?

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Follow the steps mentioned below to experiment on how to make crystals out of salt.

1. A container is required that is flat, shallow, and wide.

2. Distilled water along with alum salt or table salt is added to this container.

3. This solution is kept for rest for some time.

4. After some days, a thin layer of small crystals could be easily observed forming at the base of this solution. 

5. Using a pair of tweezers, select a seed crystal after pouring out the liquid.

6. The next step involves attaching a smooth wire or fishing line to one side of the crystal.

7. Now make a new solution with the same salt that was used earlier.

8. This salt solution is then transferred into a clean jar where the seed crystal is placed very delicately without touching both and/or sides of the jar.

9. Cover this new jar with filter paper to protect it from dust. Do not use an airtight lid.

10. To remove impurities, keep pouring the solution through a filter paper every week.

11. After some weeks have passed by, you can take this newly formed crystal out and dry it. This crystal can further be protected by a layer of nail polish which prevents it from wearing off.