Category: Chemistry Notes PPT

An electrophile is a chemical species that accepts an electron pair and forms bonds with nucleophiles. Electrophiles are Lewis acids because they accept electrons. Most electrophiles are positively charged, have a partial positive charge on an atom, or have an atom without an octet of electrons.

 

Addition and substitution reactions are the most common interactions between electrophiles and nucleophiles. Cations like H+ and NO+ polarised neutral molecules like HCl, alkyl halides, acyl halides, and carbonyl compounds, polarizable neutral molecules like Cl2 and Br2, oxidizing agents like organic peracids, chemical species that don’t satisfy the octet rule like carbenes and radicals, and some Lewis acids like BH3 and DIBAL are all popular electrophiles in organic syntheses.

• They are electron-deficient and are attracted to electrons.

• They can either have a positive or a negative charge.

• Electrons attack atoms with a lot of electrons, including carbon-carbon double bonds.

• The density influences electron movement, which generally occurs from a high-density to a low-density region.

• Electrophilic addition and electrophilic replacement reactions should be favored.

• Since they accept electrons, they are also known as Lewis acids.

• In electrophilic substitution and addition reactions, electrophiles are involved.

 

This article will study what is electrophile and electrophile examples in detail. 

 

Electrophilic Reagent Examples

1. Addition of Halogens

In halogen addition reactions, these occur between alkenes and electrophiles, most commonly halogens. The use of bromine water to titrate against a sample to determine the number of double bonds present is a common reaction.

 

C2H4+ Br2 → BrCH2CH2Br

 

The electrophilic Br-Br molecule forms a -complex with the electron-rich alkene molecule.

 

Bromine acts as an electrophile and the alkene acts as an electron donor. With the release of Br, the three-membered bromonium ion 2 with two carbon atoms and a bromine atom emerges.

 

The assault of Br from the backside opens the bromonium ion. The vicinal dibromide has an antiperiplanar configuration as a result of this reaction. When other nucleophiles like water or alcohol are present, they can attack 2 and create alcohol or ether.

 

2. Addition of Hydrogen Halides

In hydrohalogenation, hydrogen halides such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) are added to alkenes to create alkyl halides. The reaction of HCl with ethylene, for example, produces chloroethane. In comparison to the halogen addition above, the reaction proceeds through a cation intermediate. The following is an example:

 

 

Proton (H+) adds to one of the carbon atoms on the alkene to form cation 1 (by acting as an electrophile).

 

The adducts 2 and 3 are formed when the chloride ion (Cl) interacts with cation 1.

 

Chiral Derivatives

Many electrophiles are optically stable and chiral. Optical purity is typically a characteristic of chiral electrophiles. The fructose-derived organocatalyst used in Shi epoxidation is one such reagent. The catalyst will epoxidate trans-disubstituted and trisubstituted alkenes with high enantioselectivity. Until continuing in the catalytic cycle, the Shi catalyst, which is a ketone, is oxidised to the active dioxirane form by stoichiometric oxone.

 

Electrophile Examples

Given below is the Electrophiles List-

The different types of electrophiles can be classified as:

1. Positively Charged Electrophiles:

H+, SO3H+, NO+, NO2+, X+, R+ , C6H5N2+

2. Neutral Electrophiles: These showcase electron deficiency.

(a) All Lewis acids: BF3, SO3 , FeCl3 , AlCl3 , BeCl2 , SnCl2 , SnCl4 ,ZnCl2.

(b) The neutral atom that accepts electrons from the substrates :

R *COCl, R – * Mg – X, *I – Cl, CH3 – *CN, R*–Cl, R*–O

 

Which is an Electrophile?

1. Although the hydrogen ion has a positive charge, it does not qualify as an electrophile because it has absolute empty orbitals in its outer shell.

2. The ammonium ion, on the other hand, does not have any empty orbitals to draw electrons. As a result, ammonium ions are not considered electrophiles.

 

Did You Know?

In the presence of superacids, super-electrophiles are characterised as cationic electrophilic reagents with greatly enhanced reactivities. George A. Olah was the first to identify these compounds. By proto-solvation of a cationic electrophile, super-electrophiles form as a doubly electron-deficient super-electrophile. When mixed with hydrofluoric acid, a mixture of acetic acid and boron trifluoride can extract a hydride ion from isobutane through the formation of a superacid from BF3 and HF, as Olah discovered. The [CH3CO2H3]2+ dictation is the responsible reactive intermediate.

 

Conclusion

This is all about electrophile, a chemical species, and its features. Focus on the examples and explanations given in this article to develop your conceptual foundation. 

The elevation of the boiling point refers to the rise of a solvent’s boiling point upon the addition of a solute. The resulting solution has a higher boiling point when a non-volatile solute is applied to a solvent than that of the pure solvent. The boiling point of sodium chloride (salt) solution and water, for example, is higher than that of pure water.

The elevation of boiling points is a colligative property of matter, i.e., it depends on the solvent-to-solvent ratio but not on the identity of the solute. This means that the elevation of a solution’s boiling point depends on the amount of solution applied to it. The higher the solute concentration in the solution, the greater the elevation of the boiling point.

 

Boiling Point Elevation

The vapor pressure of a solvent can decrease when a solution is applied. This occurs because of the solute displacement of solvent molecules. This means that some of the solvent molecules on the liquid’s surface are replaced by the solvent; both electrolytic and non-electrolytic solutions will occur. The lower number of solvent molecules on the surface means that less can evaporate, thus reducing the vapor pressure. A higher temperature is needed for the vapor pressure to equal the ambient pressure, and a higher boiling point is observed.

A graph describing the elevation at the boiling point of water when sucrose is added is given above. At a pressure of 1atm, pure water boils at 100[^{circ}C]. However, in water, a 10-molal solution of sucrose boils at around 105[^{circ}C].

 

Why Does Boiling Point Elevation Occur?

The temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the pressure of its surrounding atmosphere is the boiling point of a liquid. Non-volatile liquids do not evaporate quickly and have very low vapor pressures (assumed to be zero). The vapor pressure of the resulting solution is lower than that of the pure solvent when a non-volatile solute is applied to the solvent.

Therefore the solution must be supplied with a larger amount of heat for it to boil. The boiling point elevation is this rise in the solution’s boiling point. A rise in the concentration of the added solution is followed by a further decrease in the solution’s vapor pressure and a further increase in the solution’s boiling point.

A temperature graph of pressure v/s detailing the boiling point elevation of a solution is given below.

Here, ΔTb represents the elevation of the solution’s boiling point. It can be observed from the graph that:

Note: The liquid’s boiling point often depends on the pressure of its surroundings (which is why water boils at temperatures lower than 100[^{circ}C] at high altitudes, where the surrounding pressure is low).

 

Boiling Point Elevation Formula

The boiling point of a non-volatile solute containing solution can be expressed as follows:

Boiling point of solution = pure solvent boiling point + elevation of the boiling point.

The boiling point elevation (ΔTb) is proportional to the solute concentration in the solution. The following equation allows it to be measured.

ΔTb = i*Kb*m

Where,

• It is the Van’t Hoff factor.

• Kb is the ebullioscopic constant.

• m is the molality of the solute.

It is important to remember that when the solute concentration is very high, this formula becomes less accurate. Also, this formula for volatile solvents does not hold true.

In terms of[^{circ}C] /molal, or[^{circ}C].kg.mol-1, the ebullioscopic constant (Kb) is also expressed. Below the Kb values for some common solvents are tabulated.

 

Kb Values for Some Common Solvents

 

With the support of the boiling point elevation formula, the degree of dissociation of the solute and the molar mass of the solute can be measured.

 

The Relationship Between Boiling Point Elevation and Vapor Pressure

In terms of vapor pressure, boiling point elevation can be clarified. Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted at a given temperature by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases. It is simply a measure of the ability of the solvent molecules, in layman’s words, to escape by entering the gas phase. When the vapor pressure is equal to the air pressure, a liquid boils.

Boiling Point – The boiling point of a liquid in its purest form. The liquid can boil when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure.

What do we Mean by Boiling Point Elevation?

By the term boiling point elevation we mean the increase in the boiling point of a solvent after a solute is added. So when any non volatile solute is added to the solvent then the result solution has a higher boiling point that the pure solvent.  Like for instance the boiling point of the solution chloride that is salt coupled with water is prominent than the pure water. However the boiling point elevation is a colligative property of matter as it depends on the solute to solvent ratio and not on the identity of the solute. This means that the elevation in the boiling point of solution is dependent on the amount of solute that gets added. Hence the greater the concentration of solute is there in the solution then greater will be the boiling point elevation.

Why does Boiling Point Elevation happen?

However the boiling point of a liquid is perhaps the temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the pressure of its nearby environment.  Moreover non-volatile substances do not actually undergo evaporation and have low vapour pressures which we can assume to be at 0.  However when the non-volatile solute is given to the solvent then the vapor pressure of the resulting solution is lower than the pure solvent. Henc the increased amount of heat should be supplied to the solution so that it can boil. This increase in the boiling point of the solution is known as boiling point elevation. 

However if this is put in vapour pressure terms the liquid boils at the temperature when the vapor pressure becomes equal to the surrounding pressure. However for the solvent if the solute is present it will decrease its vapor pressure by dilution.

What is the Use of Boiling Point Elevation?

The boiling point election and formulas used for boiling point elevation can be used to weigh the degree of dissociation or the molar mass of the solute. However this type of measurement is known as ebullioscopy which is a Greek term for boiling viewing. However the cryoscopic constant which says that the freezing point depression is large
r than the ebullioscopic constant. But the freezing point is easy to measure with accuracy and is commonly used in cryoscopy.

The definition of atomization may be taken from a sentence, which means “turning into atoms.” In the lab, chemical reactions are performed under continuous pressure, i.e. atmospheric pressure.

Because internal energy was designed solely for volatile reactions, a thermodynamic term known as enthalpy was developed to investigate reactions under continuous pressure. All reactions involve the absorption of energy or the release of energy. As a result, enthalpy (H) is a temperature changer.

Changes in Response Enthalpy

Heat, atomization, hydration, solution, neutralization, phase modification such as vaporization, fusion, and other chemical processes can cause temperature changes.

Enthalpy atomization is a mutation in the enthalpy that occurs when a molecule of a substance is reversed into existing atoms in a gaseous state.

When compound bonds are broken and component elements are reduced to individual atoms, the atomic enthalpy is the value of the enthalpy change. The atomic enthalpy is never bad but always good.

The Ha symbol represents an enthalpy of atomization.

Dihydrogen is a diatomic cell, and a given energy will be used to break its link, releasing its individual atoms as gas. As a result, atomization enthalpy has always been a positive number. 

Heat Dissociation Enthalpy is another name for atomization temperature in the H2 case.

The enthalpy of atomization equals the enthalpy of bond dissociation in this situation. The enthalpy mutation of a material molecule to break its bonds into its gas atoms is called a bond dissociation enthalpy.

Because of the difference in intermolecular forces between different types of liquids, gasses, and solids, heat is needed to convert these substances into one another.

Standard Enthalpy

A common enthalpy to combine the amount of heat needed to convert one solid mole into a fluid at a constant temperature (melting point). fusH is its symbol.

A typical enthalpy for vaporization is a type of temperature change that occurs when a liquid turns into a gas. Temperature changes are also associated with phase changes.

The heat used to create single liquid molecules at constant temperature (boiling point) under normal conditions is called enthalpy of evaporation (1 bar pressure).

Vaporization enthalpy is indicated by vapH.

Enthalpy of Sublimation 

The heat absorbed by a single molecule of a solid substance to convert directly into a gas state at a constant temperature and pressure is known as the enthalpy of sublimation (1 bar). Sublimation enthalpy is indicated by the subH sign.

Enthalpy of Fusion

A change in enthalpy, or the amount of heat absorbed, which occurs when a single mole of fuses is solid when the normal temperature and pressure are called enthalpy of fusion.

Due to the large number of unpaired electrons in their atoms and their small size, the mutation elements have high atomization enthalpies. These electrons have a high inter-atomic connection due to their presence. As a result, their atoms are bonded tightly. Catalysts include a variety of conversion tools and their combinations. Because of their tendency to exhibit various oxidation conditions, they have a catalytic activity. They produce a new process by creating an unstable central molecule. The element with electrons in the d orbital is known as the transition element.

A few reactions have enthalpies that cannot be precisely determined. As a result, certain enthalpies may be indirectly targeted from data in other species of enthalpies. Hess’s law may be used to determine how allotropic converts rhombic sulfur into monoclinic sulfur, and graphite to diamond.

Transition enthalpy is a type of enthalpy that cannot be calculated directly. The enthalpy of flame data may be used to calculate the temperature changes of allotropic mutations.

The enthalpy transformation that occurs during the termination of a chemical bond is called bond dissociation enthalpy. In other words, the energy balance of a chemical bond. As a result, enthalpy bond dissociation is defined as the normal enthalpy change that occurs when the chemical bond A is B broken by hemolysis and fragments A and B are formed. Speaking of the diatomic molecule, bond dissociation enthalpy is similar to atomisation enthalpy. The pieces A and B that are the result of this separation of the bond are usually solid types. The enthalpy of bond dissociation is indicated by the symbol DH0.

The main difference between the atomisation enthalpy and the bond dissociation enthalpy is that the first describes the force required to divide a molecule into its atoms, while the following describes the termination of chemical bonds in a molecule.

It is a chemical reaction that takes place during the formation of the ester. Esterification is the chemical process that combines alcohol (ROH) and an organic acid (RCOOH) to form an ester (RCOOR) and water. This chemical reaction results in forming at least one product of ester through an esterification reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

Below is the reaction for esterification.

()

What is Meant by Esterification Reaction?

When carboxylic acids are heated with alcohol with the help of an acid catalyst, esters are produced. The catalyst in use is usually concentrated sulphuric acid. Alternatively, dry hydrogen chloride gas is useful in some cases which incline towards aromatic sweet-smelling esters, the ones with the benzene ring. The chemical reaction which occurs during the formation of the ester is known as the esterification reaction.

CH3COOH + CH3CH2COOH → CH3COOCH2CH3

The Esterification Mechanism

The process of esterification involves five steps known as the esterification mechanism. The steps are as follows:

Step 1: Formation of Cation

The first step is where the ethanoic acid takes a proton (a hydrogen ion) from the concentrated sulphuric acid. This proton attaches to one of the single pairs on the oxygen which is double-bonded to the carbon.

()

Step 2: Carbonation Delocalized

Methanol acts as a nucleophile to a carbocation remembering that there is an excess of methanol molecules in the solution as always in this reaction. Here the Carboxyl oxygen gets protonated giving a delocalized carbocation in turn making the carbocation one better electrophile.

()

Step 3: Proton Transfer

The protonated ether leaves as methanol but does not accomplish anything. A proton transfers to one of the hydroxyl groups making it a good leaving group.

()

Step 4: Pi Bond Formation

The oxygen alcohol atom from the hydroxy group donates a pair of electrons to the atom of carbon making a π bond while eliminating water. This eliminated water is not a viable nucleophile that reverses the reaction because its concentration is low as against the concentration of the methanol.

()

Step 5: Formation of Ester

The water is extremely low for a concentration to reverse the whole reaction.

()

Methods of Esterification

The process of esterification takes place in three ways as given below:

1. From alcohol and acid chloride.

2. From alcohol and acid anhydride.

3. From alcohol and carboxylic acid.

1. From Alcohol and Acid Chloride

This method works for alcohols and phenols. In this case of phenols, the reaction improves by the conversion of the phenol firstly into a form which is more reactive.

When adding an acyl chloride or acid chloride to alcohol, one gets a vigorous or even a violent reaction even at room temperature thereby producing an ester and clouds full of steamy acidic fumes consisting of hydrogen chloride. Here given is one of the ester examples – if one adds liquid ethanoyl chloride to ethanol, then they produce a burst of hydrogen chloride along with hey liquid ester ethyl ethanoate.

CH3OCl+CH3CH2OH ⟶ CH3COOCH2CH3+HCl (1)

The substance usually called “phenol” is the simplest phenol in the family. Phenol consists of an -OH group attaching itself to a benzene ring – and nothing more. The reaction happening between ethanoyl chloride and phenol is similar enough to the ethanol reaction although not so vigorous. Phenyl ethanoate forms along with hydrogen chloride gas.

()

The formula for Benzoyl chloride is C₆H₅COCl. The -COCl group attaches itself directly to a benzene ring. Benzoyl chloride is much less reactive than acyl chlorides such as ethanoyl chloride. The phenol first converts into the ionic compound sodium phenoxide (sodium phenate) through dissolving it in sodium hydroxide solution.

()

The phenoxide ion thus reacts more rapidly with benzoyl chloride as compared to the reaction of the original phenol. However, one has to shake it along with benzoyl chloride for about 15 minutes to get solid phenyl benzoate. 

()

2. From Alcohol and Acid Anhydride

This is a reaction that is useful to make esters from phenols and alcohols again. Though the reactions are slower as against the corresponding reactions with an acid chloride, they usually warm the mixture as per their requirement. In the case of Amphenol, it reacts with the sodium hydrochloride solution initially to produce the more reactive phenoxide ion.

One can take ethanol to react with ethanoic anhydride which is the typical reaction involving alcohol, it is a slow reaction which is at room temperature. However, there is no visible change to be seen in these colorless liquids, but a mixture of ethanoic acid and ethyl ethanoate is formed.

(CH₃CO)₂O + CH₃CH₂OHCH₃ ⇒ COOCH₂CH₃ + CH₃COOH (2)

The reaction with phenol is similar but slower. Phenyl ethanoate is formed together with ethanoic acid.

()

This reaction is unimportant itself, but a very similar esterification reaction example is the manufacture of aspirin. If the phenol is initially converted into sodium phenoxide by mixing with sodium hydroxide solution, then the reaction is much faster. Phenyl ethanoate is formed again, but this time the other product is sodium ethanoate and not ethanoic acid.

()

3. From Alcohol and Carboxylic Acid

This method is useful for converting alcohol into esters. However, this method does not work with phenols or compounds where the -OH group is attached to the benzene ring. Since phenols react very slowly with carboxylic acids this reaction is not usable for the purpose of preparation.

When carboxylic acids are heated with alcohols in the presence of a catalyst which is acid at such time esters are produced. The catalyst is usually concentrated sulfuric acid. Alternatively, dry hydrogen chloride gas is useful in some cases which incline towards aromatic sweet-smelling esters, the ones with the benzene ring.

The esterification reaction is very slow and reversible. The equation for the reaction between alcohol R’OH and an acid RCOOH is as follows:

()

(where R and R’ can be either the same or different)

So, for example, the equation of ethyl ethanoate made from ethanoic acid and ethanol would be:

()

Properties of Esters

• An ester gets its name from the carboxylic acid that is used in the esterification reaction.

• Esters have a pleasant smell.

• They are highly useful in the perfume and food industries.

• They are organic compounds usually found in fats and oils.

Uses of Esters

Some common uses of esters are as follows.

• Esters are fragrant and so are highly useful in perfumes cosmetics and food flavorings.

• They are useful as an organic solvent.

• An ester Nitroglycerin is known and famous for its explosive properties.

• They are useful in the manufacturing of surfactants like soaps and detergents.

• They have present in pheromones if they occur naturally.

• Phosphoesters from the backbone of DNA molecules.

• Esters called polyesters are used to produce plastic.

In the previous classes, you have studied about three natural phenomena, evaporation, condensation, and vaporization. In this concept page, we will dig a little deeper to find out the underlying physical reasons behind these phenomena. This part of the chapter will concentrate on the evaporation and condensation part. The concept page has been developed by the top experts of so that every student can easily grab hold of the basic Physics behind these phenomena and answer the questions perfectly. 

This is an important part of chapter ‘matter’. These concepts will become a mandatory part of the physical properties of different elements and compounds in the advanced chapters. Here, evaporation and condensation will be properly discussed so that the students can understand their meaning and find the basic differences between them. Follow this concept page as a reference and study the chapter properly to overcome your doubts and answer the questions easily.

What is Evaporation?

Evaporation is a natural phenomenon where the molecules of a liquid convert into vapour and are released free from the surface. It can happen at any temperature. The prime reason for creating a concept page where you will define evaporation is to simplify the difference between evaporation and vaporization. These two terms might sound similar to each other but vary based on physical concepts.

Evaporation is a surface phenomenon where any liquid can release its molecules into the air by using the surrounding heat or the heat from the liquid itself. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature of the liquid. The higher the temperature the quicker is the rate of evaporation. Even if the temperature of the liquid reaches the same level as that of the surrounding, it will still release molecules into the air.

Let us consider a few examples to make this concept clearer.  When we spread water on our skin, we feel cooler than normal. It is because the water molecules absorb the heat of our body and convert into gas molecules. The heat lost from our skin makes us feel cooler. The same happens when any volatile liquid is spread on our skin such as alcohols, acetone, etc. If a liquid evaporates faster, it will take up the heat from our skin at a faster rate making us feel colder than the other liquids.

Factors Affecting Evaporation Rate

There are quite a lot of factors that affect the rate of evaporation of a substance. Let us discuss some of the various factors that are affecting the evaporation of a substance. These are as – 

1. Temperature: The rate of the evaporation of a substance is directly proportional to the temperature of the atmosphere around the substance. The temperature increases the rate of evaporation due to the increased temperature will increase the kinetic energy of the liquid.

2. Humidity of the atmosphere or the air: if there is already a high amount of vapours present in the atmosphere then it will become difficult for a liquid particle on the surface to rise and come to an already saturated atmosphere. Hence, the humidity of the air is inversely proportional to the evaporation rate.

3. Surface Area: the surface area of which the given liquid is exposed to the air, also plays its role in determining the evaporation rate as the evaporation can only happen on the surface area exposed to the air. Hence, the more the exposed area, the more evaporation will occur.

4. Intermolecular Force of attraction: Intermolecular force will also decide the rate of evaporation or even if the evaporation will happen at a given set of conditions. These forces will vary for each liquid and the impurities present in it.

5, Wind Speed: If the speed of the wind increases, then the rate of evaporation will also increase. It is also one of the reasons why the clothes will dry easily on a windy day.

How Does Evaporation Cause Cooling?

Now that you have understood the definition and meaning of evaporation, you can easily find out why evaporation causes cooling. Let us consider another example. Earthen pots are capable of cooling water lower than room temperature. The prime reason behind such a cooling effect is that the earthen pots have minute pores from where water seeps out. This seeping water absorbs the heat from the water inside the pot and evaporates. Thus, it reduces the temperature of the water inside the pot making it cooler and more soothing to drink during the summer season.

You will also notice that the rate of cooling slows down in the rainy season and heightens in the summer season. As mentioned earlier, the rate of evaporation depends on the temperature, it also depends on the relative humidity of the atmosphere. The lower the humidity, the higher the rate of evaporation, the cooler becomes the water inside the earthen pot.

Applications of Evaporation

Continue reading the concept page formatted to make evaporation easier to understand. You will find exceptional use of evaporation too. Here is a list of applications of evaporative cooling you will find relevant to our daily lives.

• Perspiration is the natural way of cooling our body and maintaining the core temperature. Our sweat glands produce sweat. This sweat then takes up the heat from our skin to reduce our body temperature.

• Cotton clothes are worn in the summer season. These clothes absorb water from sweat and then act as a coolant using the same working principle.

• You have already read about the earthen pots. It is an exceptional example of how evaporation was used to cool water by our ancestors.

Use the evaporation meaning and find out the reason behind such natural phenomena.

What is Condensation?

Condensation, on the other hand, is the exact opposite of evaporation. Water vapour comes in contact with a cooler surface and releases the heat stored in it. Due to the loss of heat, water vapour condenses to form small liquid droplets on the same surface. This phenomenon is called condensation. You have now understood what condensation means. You can easily set a few examples on your own.

The term electrolytic conductance is formed by connecting two important terms “electrolyte” and “conduction” or conductors”. It is important to first understand the meaning of these respective words. The electrolyte can be defined as a substance, which when dissolved in a polar solvent such as water produces electricity.

 

These electrolytes can only conduct electricity in the aqueous or molten form, and not in the solid-state.  The process of dissolution of these substances in the solvent within the passage of an electric current is known as electrolysis. The second most important term for electrolytic conductance is known as “conductance” or “conductor”.

 

The study of electrolytic conduction is essential in developing foundation knowledge on more advanced topics such as electricity, batteries, or other electrical devices. Lastly, remember that any solution that enhances the movement of free-moving ions can be defined as electrolytic conductance. Different properties of this process can help in improving the level of dissociation of ions which improves the overall electrolytic conductance.

 

Electrolysis 

Electrolysis is the process of decomposition of an electrolyte when the electricity passes through its aqueous solution or molten state. The apparatus where this process takes place is the Electrolytic cell.

What are Electrolytes?

When some substances dissolve in water, they undergo physical or chemical changes that generate ions in the solution which are called electrolytes. These electrolytes create electricity and can generate electricity only if they are in a liquid or molten state and not in their solid state. Substances that do not release ions when dissolved are known as non-electrolytes. If the chemical process generates 100% efficient ions then it is known as a strong electrolyte, but if it generates relatively weaker ions then it is known as a weak electrolyte.

Factors affecting Electrolytic Conductance

2. Type of Electrolyte

There are weak electrolytes and strong electrolytes, strong electrolytes get ionized completely in the solution whereas weak electrolytes do not. An example of a strong electrolyte is  KNO₃ and an example for a weak electrolyte is CH₃COOH.

3. Temperature 

Temperature is also one of the main factors as the ions should dissolve in the solution at a given temperature. So, at higher temperatures, the solubility is more. 

4. Size of the Ion 

The conductance of electrolytes depends on the size of the ion, the greater the size of the ion the lesser is the conductance. There you can say that Size of the ion is inversely proportional to the conductance of the ion. 

5. Type of Solvent 

The type of solvent is the fifth factor that affects electrolytic conductivity. Higher the polarity of the solvent type, the higher the conductivity.

Working Procedure of Electrolytic Conductance 

Electrolyte conductance is the process that occurs in the presence of an electrolyte. The strength is transferred from cations and anions within side the electrolytic solution. The electrolytic conductance is characterized through equal conductance and is represented through the symbol “Λ”.

Λ = 1000 χ/c; where

Χ – particular conductance of the answer with the S.I unit ohm^-1cm^-1,

C – the concentration of the solution in grams equivalents per liter.

When the conductance reaches its maximum value, the solution has attained endless dilution, implying that every one molecule within side the electrolyte has dissolved into ions, producing conductance in cations and anions.

Furthermore, there are both strong and weak electrolytic conductors and the only one that completely dissociates is a powerful electrolytic conductor as they’re made from strong bases and acids. Hydrochloric acid, sulphur dioxide, potassium iodide, and numerous inorganic salts, for example, are effective electrolytic conductors. 

A weak electrolytic conductor is one that dissociates partly or insignificantly, permitting it to transmit energy to a restrained amount. A weak electrolytic conductor, in comparison to a strong electrolytic conductor, is made from weak bases and acids.

Calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, and chloride are a number of the most prevalent electrolytes. A few good examples of good conductors of electricity are Copper, silver, aluminium, and gold.