Category: Geography Notes PPT

Ferrel cell refers to a model that belongs to the mid-latitude region of the Earth’s wind flow. The term was first proposed by William Ferrel in 1856. The air inside the Ferrel cell flows eastward and poleward near the equator and in higher altitude areas westward. It was the first model ever to account for the westerly winds, and the Ferrel cell latitude is between 35o Celsius and 60o Celsius in both the north and south hemispheres. However, the Ferrel cell is not yet considered a perfect representation of reality because it needs the wind to flow westward in the upper level of the mid-latitude. 

Hadley Cell and Ferrel Cell 

Hadley and Ferrel’s cells are characterized by the current atmospheric energies. There are various weather systems that weave around the globe at the same time. However, if an average is calculated, then the global order of air movement can be estimated.

Differential Heating

The reason behind so many weather patterns, deserts, jet streams as well as prevailing winds is only because of the circulation of the global atmosphere that is caused due to the Earth’s rotation and the heat that the different parts of the globe receive individually. 

Sun is the primary source of heat on the Earth, and as the Earth is in a tilted position, the different regions of the Earth receive heat in different ways. The circulation of wind is caused due to the circulation of Hadley polar and Ferrel cells. 

A huge difference in the temperature is experienced due to the difference between the equator and the poles. The global circulation helps in providing inherent air conditioning to stop the poles from becoming too cold and the equator from becoming too hot. 

The Global Circulation and its Relation with Polar Cell, Ferrel Cell and Hadley Cell 

Vigorous wind circulation covers a significant part of the Earth’s surface. The global circulation is often regarded as a world-wide system of winds necessary to transport the heat from the tropical latitudes to the polar latitudes. 

There are three cells in each of the hemispheres, which are named Hadley Ferrel polar cells. The air circulates by the depth of the entire troposphere. The vertical extent of the atmosphere that starts from the surface and then goes directly to the top between 10km to 15km high is known as the troposphere. This is the place in the atmosphere where almost all the weather changes take place. 

Hadley cell

Hadley cell refers to the most prominent cell that extends from the equator and goes up to 30 to 40 degrees south and north. It is named after the famous meteorologist named George Hadley. In the Hadley cell, the winds blow towards the equator and then climb near the same place in the form of a broken thunderstorm as a line. This line then forms the Inter-Tropical-Convergence Zone (ITCZ). From the top of the storms, air flows towards the direction of high latitudes. It then sinks into there to produce high-pressure in the Earth’s hottest deserts region and the subtropical oceans, like the Sahara Desert of North Africa. 

Ferrel Cell

The middle cell is known as the Ferrel cell, and the air here converges at very low latitude to ascend through the boundaries between the warm tropical air and the cool polar air that appears between 60 to 70 degrees south and north. The Ferrel cell circulation is a mid-latitude circulation that was named by a famous person named Ferrel in the 19th century. 

It often takes place across the latitude of the UK that gives unsettled weather to the area. There is a connection between the Hadley cell Ferrel cell. Within the circulation process, air from the Ferrel cell flows at a high latitude and joins the Hadley cell through a sinking air.

Did You Know?

• The weakest and the smallest cells are known as the Polar cells. 

• These extend from 60 to 70 degrees south and north to the poles. 

• Air in these particular cells sink through the highest latitudes and then flow out to the lower latitude on the surface. 

• The polar front is the junction that connects the polar cell and the Ferrel cell. This is a low-pressure zone where the relatively warm moist air runs into a relatively dry and cold air of the Polar cell.

So, this is all about the global circulation of winds and their relationship with the polar cell, Hadley Cell and Ferrel Cell. A minute study of the diagrams along with the theoretical part will further clarify your concept of these topics. Practice the diagrams as you read! 

The time interval occupied by the geological history of the earth is known as the Geologic time. Or a system of chronological dating which classifies geological strata in time is known as the geological time scale. The geologic time is estimated to have started at the Archean Eon which was approximately 4.0 to 2.5 billion years ago. This geological time scale still continues to this day. Sometimes modern geological time scales often in addition include the Hadean Eon which is an interval in geologic time that ranges from 4.6 billion years to 4.0 billion years. The geological periods can be observed by looking at the rock strata which serves the recorded geologic history of Earth. 

Calendar of Earth’s Geology

As can be observed from the geologic time scale definition, the time scale of geologic time is huge in millions of years. Geological periods in order of their decreasing duration divide the geologic time into certain units of time scale which are – Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs, and Ages. Eons are divided into Eras which are further subdivided into geological Periods, Epochs, and Ages.

The calendar of Earth’s geologic history is currently divided into four eons which are the primary and largest divisions of time scales. They are as given below:

1. Hadean eon: Started with the formation of the earth and lasted for 600 million years.

2. Archean eon: Earliest known life forms emerge as the Earth has cooled down enough to form the continents.

3. Proterozoic eon: Oxygen generating photosynthesizing single-celled organisms appear in the beginning of this geologic time period.

4. Phanerozoic eon: Encompasses development of diverse forms of living organisms and continues till present day encompassing 541 million years.

The naming of these geologic time scale units is based upon the stratigraphy which correlates and classifies with the rock strata. Although the rock strata provide significant information about the changes taking place in the geological landscape, the fossil remains provide additional information and help in the demarcation of the time scale. The fossil records provide primary evidence and means of establishing a continuous geological record when correlated with the time of the emergence and disappearance of universally common species. This fossil record sets an outline with appropriate boundaries for the beginnings and endings of geological periods, epochs, ages, and other intervals. 

The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) provides the nomenclature, dates, and colour codes for preparing charts that provide information on the relationships between different geologic time periods. The chart that agrees with this information is given below:

Establishment of Principles 

Rock strata, fossil remains, and living things play important roles in establishing and developing the geological periods in order as they have undergone geological and evolutionary changes respectively over geologic time. Many organisms are found to have existed only during particular geological periods which enhances specificity in dating and establishing the time scale. The reconstruction of the geological timeline of the geologic history of various regions and of Earth as a whole is done by correlating the data from the rock strata and the specific types of fossils that are found in that region. This timeline has been numerically quantified by means of absolute dates obtained from the radiometric dating methods. Radiometric dating evidence estimates that the age of the earth is 4.6 billion years.

The difference between the geological periods is also marked by extreme events such as mass extinctions. There have been major mass extinction events and they divide the geologic time scale into five different periods. An example of this is the demarcation between the Cretaceous geological period and the Paleogene geological period marked by the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. Many groups of life forms, especially the non-avian dinosaurs, went extinct during this event. 

Although, the time interval mentioned by the geologic time scale definition, can be estimated from the fossil remains and living organisms, many times it leads to different nomenclature of geological periods around different locales. An important aspect of the work of ICS is to solve this issue of variance in nomenclature and bring a universal terminology to the work. Not only that but also the main work of ICS is to establish the principles for making the geological time scale more structured.

These geologic time scales can be identified for other planets as well. Planets and moons having rigid structures preserve the various geological events at least in the form of stratification of rocks. This is not the case with planets which are made up of gases. But on a cautionary note, the geological events taking place on one planet have very little or no effect on the geological changes taking place on other heavy objects such as planets in the universe. 

Naming and Dating of Geological Time Scale

The earliest geological activities were done based widely upon the stratification of the rocks. These activities were mostly carried out by the Britishers and Scottish geologists. The effect of this is seen in the names of various geologic time periods. For example, the name “Carboniferous” of the carboniferous period was named after the adaptation of “the Coal Measures” an old biologists’ term. The carboniferous period is named for the set of strata of coals from the peat deposits because of the swampy forests around 360 to 300 million years ago. British geologists also contributed to the grouping and eras and division of the time scale units greatly. 

Earlier geologists and paleontologists studied various rock strata and fossil remains and estimated different time scales by understanding and involving the different rates of weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and lithification. After the discovery of radioactivity, the 20th century brought all the previous methods and time scales to the table for questioning. After that radiometric data was relied upon more and more for determining the age of the earth and subsequently determining the geologic time periods.

Conclusion: Geologic Time

Geologic Time Scale definition and particulars are briefly explained in this article. The huge time scales provide a large storehouse of the knowledge in understanding the different geologic changes taking place in the geology of the Earth which help us understand what and how of these changes and may possibly aid in predicting what can be. Although that will be a rare chance of occurrence. But nonetheless, this does not hamper the appreciation that the geologists and their work deserve to understand many aspects of geology and note it in geologic time scales helping us to know about the presently changing seismic activity landscape.

Harmattan is a season that is observed in the Western African nations of the African continent. It occurs in-between the end of November and the middle of March month. It is a dry season with typical characteristics of a dry and dusty season. The season is brought over by the northeasterly trade wind which is also named the Harmattan and it blows from the Sahara desert over West Africa and moves into the Gulf of Guinea. Depending on the local circumstances the temperature during harmattan can range from cold in most places to hot in certain regions. 

Characteristics of the Harmattan

The harmattan season brought in by the dry and dusty northeasterly trade wind occurs during the months of the lowest sun i.e. from the months of November to January with the highest during the period of December. During this season the subtropical ridge stays over the central region of the Saharan desert and there the low-pressure Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) stays over the Gulf of Guinea. While passing over the Sahara the Harmattan wind picks up the fine dust and sand particles which becomes the typical characteristic of the Harmattan season. The wind flow during the winter season of the Harmattan is given in the below picture:

The language from which the harmattan meaning is derived is the Twi language, a dialect of Akan language spoken in southern and central Ghana. The name has become so popular that the harmattan meaning has become synonymous with the particular season as in the case of monsoon and winter. Due to its strong dryness, as compared to the humid tropical air, the trade wind is also known as “doctor wind”. 

The season is particularly different from the winter season as it is prominently associated with cold, dry, dust-laden wind and wide fluctuations in the room temperatures of the day and the night. For example, during the entire day, the temperature may remain as low as 9℃ but during the afternoon it can rise up to 30℃ with relative humidity dropping below 5%. Also, it is not cold in all regions but in some regions of the Sahara, the weather will be hot for the Harmattan season. It is well established that the air of Harmattan is dry and desiccating. 

It is known for the desert-like conditions because of the following characteristics: lowering of the humidity, dissipation of cloud cover, prevention of rainfall and sometimes the creation of big clouds of dust that lead to the occurrence of desert storms or sandstorms. The fire risk increases because of the dry wind of the Harmattan season anc can also cause severe damage to the crops in all the regions where the season is prevalent. The interaction of the Harmattan with the monsoon winds can cause tornadoes. 

Effects of the Harmattan Haze

An effect known as the Harmattan Haze is quite prevalent in some countries of West Africa, with a heavy amount of dust present in the air. It can severely lead to the limitation of visibility and block the sun for several days, comparable to heavy fog. Because of this, there is a loss of millions of dollars to airlines because of the cancellations and diversions of the flights each year. When the haze gets weak and the sky gets clearer because of the extreme dryness of the air the trees will begin to die. Two distinct images of the Harmattan haze at two different places is shown below: 

The drop in humidity below 15% can/might result in spontaneous nosebleeds for some of the people. There are also other health effects on the people caused by the Harmattan. They include conditions like dryness of the skin, dried or chapped lips, eyes, and respiratory problems. This season is also adverse for people suffering from asthma because it can cause aggravation of asthma. 

Air is the constant pressure of gases, that we feel all around us but cannot see. Atmosphere, on the other hand, is the layer of gases all around the surface held by the gravitational force of the earth. Thus, air can be said to be a component of the atmospheric conditions and atmospheric pressure indicating that air and atmosphere are very closely related. The difference between air and atmosphere is the physical characteristic such as air being a pressure of gases and atmosphere being a mixture of gases. The oxygen gas which is responsible for all the living creatures on earth underlines the importance of air for a living being. The importance of the atmosphere around Earth can be characterized by the possibility of life on earth in the current state which would not have been possible with the meteorite event and sun rays from the sun.

Importance of Atmosphere and the Atmospheric Layers

From the introduction, it is clear that the atmosphere is a mixture of gases presents around the surface of the earth due to its gravitational attraction. This mixture of gases can be divided into different layers depending on various factors. So, what are the five layers of the atmosphere? They are the following from top to bottom (near the surface): Exosphere, Thermosphere, Mesosphere, Stratosphere and Troposphere. These five different layers provide protection and also make life possible because of the constituent gases which state the significance and importance of the atmosphere. The five layers provide a wide range of distribution of gases and the densities of the gases at each layer of the atmosphere. 

The five layers of the atmosphere and their composition and properties are explained below:

Exosphere

The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. Its limits reach from around 700 km to 10,000 km from the surface of the earth. There is not much definite boundary between the vaccum of space and the exosphere, as the air gets thinner and thinner moving away from the surface of the Earth. It mostly consists of a few particles that move to and from space.

Thermosphere

It is the layer of the atmosphere ranging from 100 km to 700 km limit of the atmosphere. It begins at the Karman line and is the space where the space shuttles mostly revolve around the Earth. Even though the temperatures are high, the heat is not felt because of the low atmospheric pressure. The International Space Station also orbits around the Earth in this region.

Mesosphere

This is the densest layer of atmosphere amongst the top three layers. Because of this density, this layer is responsible for the burning of the meteors and other objects falling from space due to the gravitational force of the Earth. Also, there is a temperature drop in this layer with temperatures reaching -110° C. The layer between the mesosphere and the stratosphere known as the mesopause is the coldest place on Earth. It expands from 50 km to 90 km above the earth’s surface.

Stratosphere

This layer of atmosphere is right above the troposphere and is without any or much water vapour. This layer also consists of the ozone layer which is filled with ozone (O3) gas. As is well-known the main function of the ozone layer is to protect the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the Sun. It ranges from 30 to 50 km above the surface of the earth.

Troposphere

This is the last layer and the closest layer to the surface of the Earth. This layer reaches up to 39 km from the surface of the earth. It is the densest layer and is filled with many different gases. The most abundant gas is Nitrogen which comprises 78% of the component and Oxygen 21% with other gases taking up 0.9% argon and 0.04% carbon dioxide with small traces of other gases. 

The above-mentioned earth air layers also show the importance of the atmosphere in the protection of the earth and their contribution to the possibility of life on Earth. The distribution of the layers of the atmosphere is given below in the diagram:

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Importance of Air

Air is the fundamental building block without which life would cease to exist as it is. All the organisms require oxygen present in the air for respiration and generating energy. It is utilised for the generation of energy by metabolism by the cells. The nitrogen is also utilised by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria for the growth of plants in a symbiotic relationship with the plants. The importance of air is also signified as it is responsible for many phenomena such as the scattering of light and the travelling of sound. 

As per the definition of Air, the pressure is because of the density of various gases present in the atmosphere. The pressure differences between different places lead to an increase in the flow of air and it is known as wind. The pressure difference is also a phenomenon of air and atmosphere which is responsible for rainfall.

 

Conclusion

The given article briefly explains the difference between air and atmosphere and their definitions. It also underlines the importance of air and the importance of the atmosphere. Thus, it can be concluded that without air and atmosphere life as we know it wouldn’t have been possible on Earth. This is one of the most important differences between Earth and other planets for the existence of living organisms.

Layers of Atmosphere and Importance of Air

You must have gone through the above-mentioned notes and got an overview of the layers of atmosphere and the importance of air. Both the topics are very important and considered to be the foundational topics, you need to understand these topics very well as they play a vital role in the higher classes. 

You shall have gone through all of it and have an understanding of the topic. If you still have some doubts or you want more material, you may download the Learning App which provides you with detailed study notes and live classes that will guide you and help you crack all your exams. 

Since this subject is challenging, students must note that with proper guidance and required efforts, nothing is unattainable. 

When you start claiming your inner powers and start using them to strengthen the core belief, you start winning. Understanding that challenges will be everywhere you go but they don’t have to stop you, rather they will help you to grow. Always have the courage to see the end of the tunnel and that’s where your success begins. 

Let’s begin to understand some of the tips that can help the students prepare for the subject with ease.

 

Practice, Practice and Practice! 

If you want to memorize things for a longer period, two things which you should keep in mind while preparing are to understand the concepts and practice them time and again. Practice makes you learn things effectively and efficiently. You should keep practising the topics and that too with breaks. You should never study at a stretch, your mind gets exhausted after a certain point of time and you shall be able to respect the fact that it deserves to get that.

 

Don’t re-read the Books Again and Again

It is one of the most common study techniques that students follow while preparing for exams. Give practice more important than reading the books again. Re-reading the text over and over again is nothing but just superficial. You should read once and then focus on trying it yourself and not just cram the bookish language. It is because cramming might help you pass the exam, but when you consider the fact of how much knowledge you have gained, you will lag.

 

Test Yourself

Students after completing their revision think that they are done with their preparation, but this is wrong. Another very important part that is yet to be done is to test your knowledge and solve mock tests. The most efficient way to understand things better is to explain them to someone else, if you can do so then you are all ready to jump into the exam. Quizzing yourself is another useful tip that you shall be doing to test your knowledge. 

Use Examples

Learning, understanding and memorizing the concepts may be difficult for the students but it may turn around and become easy. This can be done with the help of examples. If you have a realistic and basic daily use example in your mind, you may ace the topic and that too very easily. For example, if you try to learn that sour foods contain acids it may be difficult to remember but if you memorize them through vinegar or even through lemon it may set in your mind forever. You just need to understand and connect things and everything is sorted.

 

Use Pictures

Visual representation is one of the oldest methods and is also very effective. It includes graphs, charts, flowcharts, diagrams and much more. You must have noticed that diagrams are easier to understand than the text written with them. These pictures can boost up your memory and also make you understand things better. It is because the human mind might forget the text but a replica of pictures and colours are created in the subconscious mind.

The Khamsin is a very dry, hot and sandy wind that blows with great speeds from south to south-east, affecting Egypt and the eastern countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea (also known as Levant). The name Khamsin of the wind is a local name that is more common in Egypt and is also used in the Levant such as in Israel, Jordan, Palestine, etc. The wind may also be called Chamsin, Hamsin, or the more popular word of Egypt – Khamaseen. The meaning of the word Khamsin comes from the Arabic and Arabic dialects meaning “fifty” which refers to the fifty day period during which the Khamsin blows over the region. 

Characteristics of the Khamsin

The Khamsin, as is clear from the introduction, is a dry and sand-filled windstorm blowing over Egypt for a period of 50 days in the spring season. In Levant, it takes a different form as it blows in both the spring and the autumn. Similar winds that blow in other parts of the North African region, the Arabian Peninsula and the Mediterranean basin. They have different names for the similar phenomenon such as bad-i-sad-o-bist roz in Iran and Afghanistan, haboob in Sudan, ajej in southern Morocco, ghibli in Tunis, africo in Italy, sirocco (meaning “easterly in Arabic) or sirocco dan khamsin (loosely translating to easterly flowing for fifty days), etc. 

As the Khamsin passes through a given area, it carries large amounts of dust from the deserts along with it. An image of such a sandstorm is shown below in the given picture:

This windstorm or sandstorm is known to occur for over fifty days with a time interval of a few days. While it blows over a particular area, it lasts for a few hours, sometimes even for three to four days and has the following characteristics and effects over the given area:

• Blowing at a speed reaching 140 km/hr along with the dust it leads to a very oppressive weather condition which can be responsible sometimes for the death of the people as well. 

• As it blows the humidity over the area drops below 5% causing extreme dryness in the weather and which can hinder electrical properties due to which many times the magnetic compass as well goes haywire. 

• The Khamsin is so hot, that even during the time of the winter season, it can cause a rise in the temperature upto 45° C because of the storm. 

• Within two hours it can cause a rise of 20° C in the temperature of the day. 

• In the Levant, it brings oppressive weather front, with hot temperatures and huge amounts of dust obstructing the visibility without any strong winds flowing during the day. Although, strong winds might occur at night. 

• After blowing continuously for a significant amount of time, is followed by an inflow of much cooler air. 

The Khamsin is known to be caused by the extratropical cyclones that travel eastwards following the southern parts of the Mediterranean or the North African coast from February to June. In other words, the shift in the low pressure centre towards the east, over the Sahara, of the southern Mediterranean, leads to Khamsin flowing from the south to south-east. On the front side, the low pressure centre brings in the dry air, northward, out of the desert and on the rear side it brings the cool air southward from the Mediterranean. 

Historical Accounts and Cultural Impacts of Khamsin

The Khamsin sandstorms have been reported to have seriously impacted the military campaigns of Napoleon in Egypt and Allied-Germany campaign in North Africa in World War II. In the case of Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign in 1798, the French had an extremely difficult time dealing with the Khamsin. The storm appeared to them “as a blood[y] tint in the distant sky”. While fighting against the Ottomans during the Khamsin, the Ottomans took cover and the French unaccustomed to the circumstances “did not react until it was too late, then choked and fainted in the blinding, suffocating walls of dust”. An image of the bloody tint is shown in an image below:

Similar difficulties were faced by the Allied-German forces during the North African campaign of World War II. “Allied and German troops were several times forced to halt in mid-battle because of sandstorms caused by the khamsin…. Grains of sand whirled by the wind blinded the soldiers and created electrical disturbances that rendered the compasses useless.”

The sandstorm has so much geographical significance that it has heavily influenced the cultural life as well. It is the Khamsin which in the Book of Exodus of the Hebrew Bible is named as the ruah kadim or the “east wind” responsible for the parting of the Red Sea. 

A 19th century account of the Khamsin in Egypt, states the following:

“These winds, though they seldom cause the thermometer of Fahrenheit to rise above 95° in Lower Egypt, or in the Upper Egypt 105°, are dreadfully oppressive, even to the the natives. When the plague visits Egypt, it is generally in the spring; and the disease is most severe in the period of Khamáseen.”

From the same source it is observed that the Muslims in Egypt, “calculate the period of [Khamaseen]…, to commence on the day immediately following the Coptic festival of Easter Sunday, and to terminate on the Day of Pentecost (or Whitsunday); an interval of 49 days.” This period is the period that coincides with the Jewish Counting of the Omer, that also has the time duration of 49 days. In Israel, the Khamsin is more formally known as the sharav. 

Some of the Most Recent Cultural Impacts of the Khamsin are Listed as Below:

• Khamsin was the title of a 1982 Israeli film that tells the story of the clash between a Jewish landowner and his Arab workers in a small farming village in the Galilee. 

• “Khamsin” was the codename for one of the characters of the video game Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance. 

• “Khamsin” was also the name of a character Flame Haze in the anime Shakugan no Shana. 

• The speed aspect of the Khamsin has been taken into account while naming windy khamsin 35 and Maserati Khamsin. The windy khamsin 35 is a motor yacht produced by the company Windy. The Maserati Khamsin is a grand tourer produced by the company Maserati from 1974 – 1982.  The Maserati Khamsin is the common result when searched for lamborghini khamsin. The lamborghini khamsin, one of  the common searches for fast cars on google displays the information regarding the Maserati. 

• The Khamsin has also been depicted in one of the stories of the adventures of Tintin. 

Those who all love gardening are generally advised that specific loam garden soil is accurate for all the plants. The question is what is loamy soil? What are its soil constituents and how are they suitable? All of these questions will be discussed in this content. 

 

The Soil which is well composed of many particles with a variety of sizes is called the loamy soil. The soil scientists have classified the soil particles majorly into three groups, which are:

A loamy soil particularly combines all these three variations. We will know about this soil further in our prevailing section.  

Loam 

Loam is an equal mixture of the three soil types, which are sand, silt, and clay. The components of loam do contain sand particles in it. The Loamy soil has the capacity of holding water but it drains at a rate which is about 6-12” (approximately 15-30 cm.) draining per hour. Loam soil is abundantly rich in minerals and good nutrients for the plants and they lose enough of the roots and they spread out forming a strong foundation. 

There are yet simple ways via which one can get an idea of the type of soil one has. The method is – one can try to form a ball out of the damp soil with one’s bare hands. The soil which is too sandy will not form a ball, it will eventually crumble. While the soil having too much clay will form a tight and hardball. Silty and loamy soils will also form a loose ball which is lesser crumbly.

This is evident that many of the gardeners complain of their garden soil as they are being compacted or are poorly drained. Heavy and compacted soil can be solved by an enduring gardener. Here adding a good amount of organic matter, like compost, animal manure, cover crops, or organic mulch materials, every year as the soil is being worked. This may take time (generally years), but eventually, the compaction of the soil will be solved. 

Sandy Loam Soil 

This variety of soil is dominated mainly by the sand particles, they contain enough clay and sediment which provide some structure and good fertility. While there are four different types of sandy loam soil that are classified on the basis of their sand size.

We can find sand mixed in the soil in the sandy loamy soils, the sand mixed here is very much visible to naked eyes. When the sandy loamy soils are being compressed together, they will hold their shape but break apart quite easily. These sandy loam soils have a good concentration of sand particles which gives them a gritty type feel. In the gardens and lawns, these sandy loam soils are quite capable of quickly draining the excess water but they cannot hold large amounts of water or nutrients for the gardened plants. The plants growing in this type of soil will need frequent irrigation and fertilization than other soils which have a high concentration of clay and sediment content in them. 

Clay Loam 

Clayey loam inherits a soil mixture that contains more of the clayey material than other types of rock or minerals in it. The particles of clay are in very small quantities, this is one of the most important characteristics. For this reason, loams that contain a good deal of clay seem to be heavy, because they are very dense. 

The density of the clayey loam sets the biggest two drawbacks – When it is very wet, the soil swells to retain water, this makes it till the soil. With poor drainage capacity, this soil can also stunt plant growth. The dry clay shrinks but always stays impacted. This forms dense clogs and cracks in the soil surface. 

Sandy Clay Loam

The Soil is generally at the top and this has an underlying layer (which is 0−30 and 30−60 cm). The Sandy clay loam has an acidic reaction (which is active pH: 5.82 and 5.87, they bear a potential pH of 5.21 and 5.29), the medium content of humus (which is approximately 4.5% and 3.7%), and very high available of Cu (that is 7.25 and 6.04 ppm), next it has a high content of available Fe (which is 21.6 and 20.5 ppm), the optimum of exchangeable Ca (157 and 169 mg/100 g), and below the optimum value for exchangeable Mg (9.5 and 8.1 mg/100 g). 

Loamy Sandy

The US Department of Agriculture sub-classified the loamy sands from coarse to very fine particles, which is according to the proportion of sand that separates what they contain. The loamy coarse sand contains a minimum of 25 percent which separates that either from very coarse or coarse and less than 50 percent of any extra texture. The loamy sand consists of much less than 50 percent of the fine or smoothly fine particles, which is more than 25 percent of medium particles, and also less than 25 percent of the two coarsest particle types. 

Soil Silty Clay Loam

Loam consists of – Silty clay loam which is about 27 to 40 percent clay, while less than 20 percent of sand. Sandy clay of 35 percent or more clay and 45 percent or more of sand. Silty clay is 40 percent or more clay and 40 percent or more silt. The Clay is 40 percent or more clay, which is less than 45 percent sand and is less than 40 percent silt.