Category: Geography Notes PPT

Want to define radiative forcing? Radiative forcing through an environment variable is an alteration in the earth’s stability proportion between entering energy of the sun’s radiation and departing energy of the thermal Infrared radiation during the alteration of the variable while other additional components are kept constant. They happen because of fluctuations in the input of the sun’s energy and transitions among the atmospheric concentrations of global warming gas.

As the computation of their radiative forcing may be done utilizing the practically ascertained theories summarized in the multilayer environmental archetype and its implementation in the atmosphere of our planet.

       

         

Climate Forcing Definition

It is a substantial method of influencing the climate of the earth by a multitude of compelling facets. These facets are mainly called forcings since they navigate the weather to improve. The largely remarkable aspect is that climate forcing prevails outward of the subsisting clime structure. Some significant varieties of climate forcings are deviations in the sun’s ray emission degrees, volcanic outbreaks, altering radiance, and transforming degrees of the atmosphere’s global warming gases. All of these are regarded as external forcings as these occurrences vary unaided by the temperature, maybe as an outcome of improvements in the sun’s activity and human-induced energy conflagration.

Generally, the temperature is influenced because of some adaptation in our planet’s energy progression. As temperature and additional components that characterize weather are inhibited through energy drifts inside and outside of our planet, each of the manual techniques that are worthy of amending these ebbs is critical to designing weather modification.

Our Planet reacts to them by stabilizing a fresh proportion at a fresh climate. This fresh constant state is an involuntary fixed state because it is never the voluntary state. Instead, it was inflicted as an outcome of human actions. The ratio at which the temperature shifts in reaction to the thrusting, especially positive forcing, relies on facets like how adequately the sea is competent at storing heat.

Different Kinds of Radiative Forcing

Two major kinds of forcing prevail. They are:

A. Positive Radiative Forcing:

It is a force that simmers the Earth, which implies that the earth obtains additional impending energy from solar radiation than it illuminates to space. The total boost of energy will result in warming. Presently, the radiative forcing proportion is positive, thereby providing a total standard excess energy approximating to nearly two-watt per meter square of the Earth.

B. Negative Radiative Forcing:

Negative radiative forcing chills the earth. It implies that Earth forfeits additional energy to vacuum than it collects from the sun. This results in cooling. The planet that is in radiative balance with its guardian star and the remainder of space may be depicted by “net-zero radiative forcing”. It may also be depicted by a planetary equanimity climate. Soot has a negative effect on radiative forcing. It is also called Black Carbon. It can make our planet’s soil darker and partially reflective if it is plopped on sleet and frost. Numerous other components, like land usage, alter, that influence radiative forcing.

Aerosol Radiative Forcing

Aerosol radiative forcing can be interpreted as the consequence of anthropogenic aerosols upon the dissipative fluctuations at the lid of the atmosphere or the ground and on the immersion of rays inside the atmosphere. Total aerosol forcing implies the outcome of the aggregate aerosols that is anthropogenic aerosol added to the natural aerosol.

Anthropogenic Climate Forcing

Anthropogenic climate forcing can be defined as an alteration in our planet’s energy equilibrium because of human parsimonious actions. Man’s parsimonious actions affect revisions in the percentage of radiatively strong environmental gases, in the volume of gassy antecedents of the atmospheric aerosols and O3, and furthermore in the albedo of the Earth’s system. Radiatively strong gases like CO2, CH4, N2O, and CFCs, are blended adequately in the environment, whereas Ozone and aerosols of the environment possess exclusive structures because of their very short atmospheric lifetime.

Adaptations in the volume of radiatively strong gases in the environment are reported by differences in their releases. Modifications in Ozone and aerosols of the environment are interpreted by the release of their gassy antecedents. Alterations in the albedo of Earth’s system are associated with modifications in land-using methods, pensive emission of the aerosols, and modifications in cloud blanket because of air pollution or alteration of the climate.

Artificial or anthropogenic environment changes include the release of the gases that traps heat that is greenhouse gases. Anthropogenic changes also include alterations in the use of land that compel land to reproduce some amount of sunlight energy. Human-induced climate changes are heightening day-by-day, and their consequence monopolizes all biological environment drivers.

Coral Sand is light-coloured sand found in the coral reefs. It is formed because of the erosion or skeletal material of the marine organisms. For example, it can be found in Polynesia, the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, the Caribbean, the Red sea, etc.

Glass sand is a type of sand whose chief component is silicon dioxide and it works as a source of silica for glass and chemical industries as well. It is also used in other works as well such as water purification and filtration, road and concrete works, etc.

Gypsum sand is a type of sand whose main component is Gypsum i.e calcium sulfate dihydrate. It is considered a rare component in the sand that is soluble in water. For example, a large dune field of sand is found in Mexico because it doesn’t have a very wet climate.

Ooid sand is a type of sand that contains rounded sedimentary grains. It also has calcium carbonate. Ooids are small rounded bodies full of minerals. 

Pit sand is a kind of sand that is sharp, angular, and porous and found in pits of the soil and used for mortars. It does not have harmful substances and fine pit sand never leaves a stain on hands when rubbed. 

River sand is a kind of sand that is generally found and polished due to the rubbing process of ocean currents and it is found in river beds and banks. It is desirable for plastering works and suitable for all civil engineering works and constructions.

Sea sand is also similar to river sand which is fine, rounded, and polished because of the rubbing process of ocean currents and it is found in the seashores. It is light brown in colour and has salt. It is not used for construction purposes and also not or less desirable for civil engineering works.

Green Sand is a kind of sand that contains some greenish materials.

Desert sand is a type of sand that is found in deserts. Sand dunes can be easily seen in the desert region for example in the Thar desert.

Lithic sand is a type of sand that contains small rocks and fragments of rocks.

Mixed Carbonate Silicate sand is a type of sand that is a mixture of organic and inorganic sand grains.

Biogenic Sand is a kind of sand that contains tiny particles of skeletal material, seashells, and corals, etc.

Garnet sand is a type of sand that contains garnet which is a mineral as its major component.

Olivine sand is a type of unstable land which is generally used for steel casting works.

Volcanic sand is a kind of sand that is found in the regions of volcanic eruptions and it is dark in colour. 

Heavy mineral sand is sand that consists of molecules of high mass and it is used for forming stable structures.

Continental sand is a type of sand that is generally found on continental beaches and light brown in colour in which some dark grains sparkled.

Sand with Hematitic pigment is a kind of sand that has a reddish mineral called Hematite as its major component.

Seepage is the movement of water in soils or the ground. The flow of water through the soil or ground is called seepage. But seepage meaning does not only limit itself to water only but other fluids as well. Thus, seepage meaning is the flow of water or any fluid through the soil or the ground. Seepage is often a critical problem in geology. A common example of such a problem is the flow of water or fluids through the building foundations. This flow of water or other fluids occurs through the pores or interstices. It is a common phenomenon around hydraulic structures in buildings or water bodies. 

Seepage – A Menace

Seepage, as already introduced above, is the flow of water through the pores or interstices especially in building foundations, it becomes a critical factor to be understood. Water seepage meaning depends on several factors. These factors include pressure gradient and the permeability of the soil which is essentially the combination of the forces of gravity through other factors. The permeability can vary widely over a range depending on the soil structure and the composition making it possible for the safe design of such structures as earth dams and reservoirs with very little or negligible loss via leakage and other structures such as roadbeds and filtration beds in which the rapid drainings are desirable. 

Some of the following factors can be checked when seepage is to be observed, especially water seepage meaning is satisfied in any of the leaks. They are Water, Dampness, Moisture, Corrosion, Discoloration, Staining, Exudations, Efflorescence, and Incrustations. When any such leakage and seepage meaning fulfilling symptoms are visible then they are to be reported since the seepage can cause serious problems to the building foundations. This water seepage meaning becomes a common menace when the iron or steel used commonly in modern building constructions gets corroded thus weakening the foundations and the structure of the building and the constructions. 

Seepage of Groundwater

Commonly speaking seepage synonyms is leakage. But there is a difference between the two. Leakage is the flow of water not through the interstitial or very minute spaces in-between material molecules but through the cracks of damaged materials carrying water or any other fluids. Also, the flow of water through leakage is generally faster than the seepage. Another concept that is related to the flow of fluids is permeability. But permeability is the allowance of the fluid through the material and it’s an intrinsic property of the material. Whereas seepage is generally seen in damaged construction materials or sometimes occurs in materials with the passage of time. There is also groundwater seepage. In this, the water seeps through the soil. Sometimes when there is excess groundwater available it can seep through the porous soil material against the gravity and get collected in the basements of construction sites or already constructed buildings. Thus, seepage occurs from a reservoir to drainage i.e. from sites having a higher quantity of water to sites with a lesser quantity of water. In many ways, seepage is an undesirable phenomenon, unlike permeability which can be desirable under special conditions.

Thus, it is clear that seepage is the slow flow of water or any other fluid through spaces present in between porous materials and can be considered as leakage as well but is significantly different from the permeability of fluids. 

Have you ever seen the sky? You must have seen the sun in the day and the moon at the night long with the presence of some stars or have heard of the news bout something in space coming towards the earth and can damage it, etc. Well, there are a lot of things that we cannot see with our naked eyes. Here, we will talk about the stars and solar system, various celestial bodies in the solar system, solar system definition geography, the 8 planets name, sun, moon and stars, etc. This page will give you basic information about the space and the solar system we live in and its related features and will help you in Geography and Science subjects and will also increase your knowledge.

Celestial Body Definition and Meaning

All those heavy objects which are present in space such as the sun, the moon and other bodies are called celestial bodies.  There are a number of celestial bodies present which have different features which are mentioned below.

Galaxy and Universe

If you have ever seen a white glowing path in the sky at night full of stars, that band is actually called the Milky way which is also known as Akash Ganga. It is a cluster of stars where our solar system lies and this cluster of stars is called a galaxy and there are a huge number of galaxies that comes together to form the universe. We still do not know the exact size of the whole universe and the number of different galaxies present in the universe.

Solar System

From the above information, you have already come to know that the solar system is a subpart of a galaxy and a system that comprises the sun, the planets and their satellites and other celestial bodies, is called a solar system. There are a number of celestial bodies in the solar system which we will discuss below:

Stars

The celestial bodies which are larger in size and hot and made of various gases, have their own heat and light are called stars. For example, the sun in our solar system is a star that is huge in size and emits light in larger amounts. It also a great source of energy and heat for our planet Earth. There are millions and billions of stars in our solar system.

At night, you must have noticed the twinkling stars which are similar to the sun but we cannot feel their heat as they are far from us and looks like a tiny dot at the night in the sky. Sometimes you have seen some patterns of stars in the night sky, those patterns are called constellations. For example, Ursa Major or Big Bear. The most famous and easily recognizable is the Saptarishi or group of 7 stars. There is also a star namely the Pole star which has a fixed position and was used by the ancient people to locate directions. Now you can answer the question – Is constellation a part of the solar system? 

The Sun

It is called the centre of the solar system which binds it with its pulling force. It is made up of huge amounts of gases such as hydrogen and helium. Its mass is 99.8% of the total mass of the entire solar system. It is almost 150 mn km away from our planet and is a huge source of heat and energy. From the above information, you will able to answer one question- Is the sun a star or a planet?

Planets

These are those celestial bodies that do not have a light of their own and move around the sun in fixed paths called orbits. 8 planets namely are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Earlier, Pluto was also considered as a planet but now has been excluded from the list and is known as a dwarf planet.

The Earth

This is the third planet from the Sun and it is the only planet where life exists. It is the fifth-largest and has a Geoid shape because it is flattened at the poles. It is also called the blue planet and venus’s twin.

The Moon

It is the only satellite of the planet Earth having a diameter of one-quarter of the Earth and 3,84,400 kms away from the planet. It moves around the planet earth and takes 27 days for one revolution. It does not support life like earth.

Asteroids

There are some other tiny bodies as well in addition to the above-mentioned ones which move around the sun and are found between Mars’; and Jupiter’s orbits. As per the scientists, they were once parts of the planet which have been broken off.

Meteoroids 

These are other pieces of rocks that revolve around the sun and sometimes also reach the earth and in that process, they start burning sometimes and emit light because of which they look like a shooting star. 

The study of the formation of rocks is classified as geology. It is basically a science that deals with the study of solid matter such as rock or rock strata. And the rock strata conveys the history of the earth and its life, especially what is recorded in it. This can be categorized into stratum geology. The rock strata meaning can be better understood by studying the stratum that is formed from deposits or piles of layers for many years. Stratum is used when there is a single rock consisting of many (several parallel layers) layers. And the term strata is used as a plural noun for stratum to describe a giant pile of the deposited sediments. 

Rock Strata and Stratification

Rock Strata Meaning- The term ‘rock strata’ is often used by geologists when referring to many rock layers in a generic sense that appears over large areas. The singular form stratum, which is derived from a Latin word that means spread out, can be used for a single layer, but individual rock layers or even rock beds are more commonly referred to using this specific name as a stratum. Now that you have understood the rock strata meaning, let us understand the formation and features. Rock strata are formed via stratification. 

Stratification – A bed or layer of sedimentary rock which is formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic particles at the Earth’s surface, and is then followed by cementation of the deposits naturally over time that is visually distinguishable from adjacent beds or layers and this layering of such rocks or sediment is called stratification. Stratigraphy can be considered a sub-discipline of geology that involves the study of rock strata. A sequence of sedimentary layers stacked one atop the other is known as a stratigraphic section and though this is the basic layer of foundation its arrangement and sequence can completely vary according to Steno’s law of stratigraphy. Something that is formed in layers is referred to as a stratiform deposit by geologists. And the term stratification planes are referred to the planes of parting, or separation between individual rock layers. 

Features of Stratum from Stratification

• Formed from the igneous rocks on the earth’s surface, sedimentary rocks, from the volcanic lava flows and its fragments deposits.

• The layers vary greatly in shape and thickness ranging from several millimetres to metres.

• The strata can be a lenslike thick body that only extends a few metres.

• The layers can also be very thin sheets that spread up to several kilometres horizontally.

• The layers are horizontally aligned and a few inclinations are seen on the deposition sites.

• The texture of the stratum changes and with time, some coarser particles become finer, colour changes are seen due to change in mineral composition as time passes. 

• The thickness of the rock strata is independent of the time of deposition; an inch or 2.5 centimetres of stratum layer may take longer to form than strata with a 3-metre thickness.

• The prominence and the details of the strata can vary vastly even within the same strata.

• Rock strata are only a feature of strata formed by sedimentary rocks while the volcanic rocks formation can differ in a few ways as it is influenced by gravity, sea, liquid lava flow and wind. 

Variants in Formation of Rock Strata

There are many factors that can influence, interrupt and change the course of rock strata formation and all these variants help are of primary importance when studying to interpret the geological events and transformation that occurred on the Earth. They are:

• Transporting ability of the depositing agent

• Water

• Wind flow direction

• Size and weight of the mineral agents

• The shape of the deposits

• Homogeneity of the sediments that are deposited

Stratigraphy Laws

1. Steno’s laws describe the patterns of rock layers formation of strata. The first law is the superposition law which states that the younger layers or the new deposits sit atop the older layers and this pauses the change of their growth and texture.

2. The second law is the law of original horizontality that states the original deposition of sedimentary rock layers are flat but orientation may change and even can be found to be tilted when they are heavily influenced by variants.

3. The Law of cross-cutting is the third law of stratigraphy which states that there is a disruption in the rock layers formed wherein there is no particular pattern and younger ones overlap with the older layers of deposition.

4. The law of lateral continuity is the fourth law which states that the deposition to form rock layers continues laterally without any opposition till they encounter other solid-body matter and no deposition is possible. 

Uses of Rock Strata 

• To study the stratification of volcanic rocks, especially the layered ones.

• Used to study the preserved movements of the earth’s surface through the deformed surface.

• Through the interpretation of geologic events, one can gain such practical results that can be helpful in tracing the petroleum fields, the location of mineral deposits, and groundwater reservoirs. 

• The branch of geology that deals with stratification are also called biostratigraphy which uses fossils to study the earth ages.

• Fossils are a great way to determine the relative ages of the rocks.

• Fossils interpretation is helpful in correlating the successions of sedimentary rocks within and between depositional basins.

Conclusion

Stratum geology is a great way of understanding the eras gone by and the endurance of the planet earth through various seasonal changes. It is also a great way to predict what is possible ahead if there are repeating patterns of depositing nature. The Grand Canyon is a pandora’s box for studying the rock strata. It is remarkable that the stratification process that preserves so much information about the past earth’s movement still endures and sustains as new movements are also being recorded. And these recordings are extremely helpful to study earth patterns throughout their history since their formation and that can provide interesting details and help find missing pieces in historical studies. 

The ultimate source of heat and energy is the Sun. The divergent heat received from the sun on the different regions on Earth is the utmost reason behind the different climate features. So understanding the pattern of temperature distribution on Earth in different seasons is important for understanding different climatic features such as precipitation, wind system, pressure system, etc.  

In this article, we will discuss the horizontal and vertical distribution of temperatures along with the factors affecting and factors controlling the temperature distribution on Earth. 

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

The distribution of temperature across latitude over the Earth’s surface is known as the horizontal distribution of temperatures. The horizontal distribution of temperature on Earth is shown by Isotherms. Isotherms are the line joining points that have an equal temperature. When the isotherm map is analyzed, it can be observed that the horizontal distribution of temperature is uneven. 

Following are the Factors Accountable for the Uneven Horizontal Distribution of Temperature is:

• Latitude

• Altitude

• Land And Sea Contrast

• Ocean Currents

• Passage of Air Masses

• Vegetation Cover

Vertical Distribution of Temperature

As we are aware, the temperature in the troposphere decreases with an increase in altitudes but the rate of decrease in the temperature changes according to seasons. The decrease of temperatures is known as the vertical temperature gradient or normal lapse rate which is 1000 times more than the horizontal lapse rate. The decrease of temperature upward in the atmosphere proves the fact that the atmosphere gets heat from the Earth’s surface through the process of conduction, radiation, and convection. Hence, as the distance from the Earth’s surface ( the source of direct heat energy to the atmosphere) increases ( i.e as the altitude increases ), the air temperature decreases.

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

Some of the factors affecting the temperature distribution are:

1. Latitude: The temperature of the surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles because the sun rays become more and more inclined and hence the amount of insolation minimizes poleward.

2. Unequal Distribution of Land And Water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat because of their contact with the larger extent of land than the equivalent parts in the southern hemisphere.

3. Prevailing Winds: The winds blowing from the land towards the ocean drive surface water away from the coasts resulting in an upwelling, in which deep cold water rises into the surface.

4. Ocean Current: Warm ocean current increases the temperature in cold areas whereas the cold current decreases the temperature in the warm ocean. For example: in a gulf stream, a warmer current increases the temperature of the Eastern coast of North America and the west coast of Europe.

5. Other factors affecting the temperature distribution are local weather conditions like storms and cyclones.

Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

The factors controlling the temperature distribution on the Earth’s surface are discussed below:

• The latitude of the Place

• The altitude of the Place

• Distance From The Sea

• The presence of warm and cold ocean Currents

• Local Aspects

Global Distribution of Temperature

The global distribution of temperature can be effectively understood by considering the temperature distribution for January and July. The distribution of temperature is usually shown on the map using the isotherms. The isotherms are line joining places of equal temperature. Generally, the effects of latitude are well shown on the map as isotherms are generally parallel to the latitudes. The deviation from this trend is more generally observed in January rather than in July, especially in the northern hemisphere. The land surface is much larger in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere. Hence, the effects of land masses and ocean currents are well observed.

Temperature Distribution – January

• In January, there is winter in the Northern hemisphere and summers in the southern hemisphere.

• The western margins of continents in January are much higher than the Eastern counterparts as the westerlies can carry high temperatures into the landmasses.

• The temperature gradient is much closer to the Eastern margins of continents. The isotherms observe more steady behavior in the southern hemisphere.

Temperature Distribution – July

• During July, it is winter in the Southern hemisphere and summers in the Northern hemisphere. The isotherm behavior is the opposite of what it was in January.

• The isotherms are generally parallel to the latitudes in July. The equatorial oceans record warmer temperatures more than 27 degrees celsius. More than 30 degrees celsius is noticed over the land in the subtropical continent region of Asia, along the 30 ° N latitude.

Conclusion

notes enable students to be sufficiently prepared for the Geography exam and guarantee that students will score good marks.