Category: Geography Notes PPT

Have you noticed the change in colours of the leaves of the plants or trees etc. around you? It all happens because of the change of season. It is one of the four seasons on the Earth which comes after the summer season and comes before the winter season. Here, we will be talking about this season only. We will learn about the autumn fall, autumn season’s meaning or definition, autumn months, temperature and climate, how seasons change, autumn time, etc. This article will help you to understand the base of the geographical phenomenon and helps to understand one of the seasons on earth and its various features.

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Autumn Meaning

Autumn is a “Latin” word that first appeared in the 14th century. It is also known as harvest or fall. It comes in between the seasons of summer and winter and it works as a transitional season between the two. It is the time when the temperature starts reducing and the weather starts bringing changes and becomes neither too hot nor too cold. In India, we have 6 seasons namely Summer, Monsoon, Autumn, Pre winter, Winter, and Spring. Autumn in Hindi is known as Sharad Ritu.

Definition

According to the Oxford dictionary, “ autumn is ​the season of the year between summer and winter when leaves change color and the weather becomes colder”

Change of Seasons

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Our planet is tilted by 23.5° and if it is not tilted then half earth would face the day and half earth would face night but we know that it is not the case here. We experience seasons because of a number of factors such as the earth’s tilt, angle of incidence, division of the earth into equator, tropic of cancer, tropic of Capricorn, and the apparent movement of the sun. Our earth experiences four seasons i.e summer, autumn, winter, spring. Where the sun is directly overhead, that region of the Earth experiences maximum temperature which leads to summers and further the cycle continues. 

In Northern Hemisphere

Here, the Autumn season comes after the summer season, and regions experience autumn during September. At this time, the southern hemisphere experiences the spring season.

In Southern Hemisphere

Here, the Autumn season comes after the summer season but during the period of March. At this time, there is spring season in the northern hemisphere.

Difference Between Spring and Autumn

Autumn always comes after the summer season and spring comes after the winter season. In autumn, the temperature gradually decreases and in spring the temperature starts increasing. The Autumnal Equinox is related to the autumn season and the term vernal equinox is related to the spring season.

Autumn starts in the Northern hemisphere around the time of the month of September and lasts till all the cold winter months. It is mostly experienced by people around the globe towards the end of the year. Nights become longer than days and days last for a short time. Whereas, spring starts in the Northern hemisphere around the time of the month of March and lasts till all the summer months. It is mostly experienced by people around the globe at the beginning of the year. Days become longer than nights and nights last for a short time.

The Autumn season is well known as the cooling-off season as the temperatures everywhere start to go down and drop. And it is also known as the fall season. On the other hand, during the spring season temperatures start to rise in the daytime as it starts nearing the summer season.

The ecological variations brought about in the period of the autumn and spring seasons are also fairly opposing to one another. While the trees of most deciduous forests turn into lovely shades of orange, red, in addition yellow throughout the autumn season, spring brings forth a conflicting impact on flora. The spring season is marked by the growing of floras and of new leaves on trees.

All of these seasons are allied with very diverse connotations that are basically used in storybook works. Owing to its natural values, the season of autumn is related with wind-ups, whereas the spring season is related to the progress of new leaves and plants is a sign of new life.

The climatic alterations that go with each of these times of year are also unfriendly to one another. While autumn is typically known as the ‘cooling-off season’, the spring season starts with an equal increase in temperatures, in groundwork for the forthcoming summer months.

 

Temperature and Climate

The weather in the region starts changing gradually and the temperature starts decreasing. Generally, it is a season between the summers and the winters but in some areas, it also brings rainfall with itself. For example in India, the monsoon comes after the summer season and succeeds by the autumn and winter season. In some temperate regions, it is also the time of harvesting crops. People generally love autumn weather because it is neither too cold nor too hot. People enjoy this season and love to celebrate various festivals and traditions or occasions etc. but Autumn 2020 was the worst because of the Covid-19 pandemic and people did not get a chance to enjoy the beauty of this season.

Vegetation and Wildlife

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It is one of the beautiful seasons of the year in which plants and trees start changing their colours. You will experience colours of autumn such as golden, yellow, orange and red, etc. It is the time when plants and trees start shedding their leaves as well. It is also a season of harvest on one side and a season of new crops on the other side. Apple, blackberry, brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, mustard, spinach, garlic, etc. are grown in this season.

This is a period of transition from one extreme season to another i.e from summers to winters. Animals start preparation for the winter season. Thicker fur grows on the bodies of the animals so that they are able to survive the winters. For example, rabbits, cats, dogs, birds, etc. Some animals go to hibernation where they keep their body temperature low and save their energy. For example, chipmunks or skunks, etc. Some animals start finding places like under the trees or rocks or caves etc. Birds start to migrate from one colder region to some warmer places. 

Autumn Traditions

It is quite a good time to celebrate any occasion or tradition or festival. A number of festivals or traditions are being celebrated during this period. For example, Dia de Muertos, Chuseok, Thanksgiving, Dussehra, and Diwali, etc.

 Reasons as to why Autumn is Considered the Best Season of All!

1. You can catch some birds in the course of migration

The fall is the time of the year when many species of birds make their way to the warmer climes towards the south in preparation for the upcoming chilly winter months. While each and every species has its own path, there are a few popular “flyways” where keen people from all over take the trip to have a look at the view.

2. You can be lucky enough to get a glimpse of the harvest moon

The full moon appears during the time of the autumn equinox when the Earth’s equator is utmost closely lining up with the centre of the sun, and the sun becomes brighter and rises before the full moon. This phenomenon happens around the months of September or October.

3. It is the best time to enjoy a campfire

While some people might also enjoy camping trips during the summer season, the fall, when leaves are altering their colour and the air is a bit cold, is debatably the best time to get out in nature. A campfire can be best enjoyed during this time with friends and family.

Conclusion 

Thus, here we have covered the autumn season and its various features. We come to know about the meaning of autumn, autumn months, and timing, etc. We learned actually how this change comes and how seasons change. This article will help you to understand the very basic concept of seasons and will help you in studying Geography or Earth Science.It is important to learn about seasons so that we can be aware of the passage of time and also for general knowledge. While some changes are obvious like hot and cold weather, changing seasons precisely is very fascinating and is also something everyone must be aware of.

Did You Know?

Dia de Muertos is a kind of a tradition when people paint their faces and take part in the parades etc. to remember their loved ones to whom they have lost in their lives and this tradition is being followed to remember and honor them.

The Cambrian Period is not to be the most ancient geological period of the Paleozoic Era and the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian lived for 55.6 million years from the completion of the preceding Ediacaran Period 541 million years ago (mya) to the commencement of the Ordovician Period 485.4 mya. The period was authenticated as a “Cambrian series” by Adam Sedgwick, who identified it after Cambria, the Latin title for ‘Cymru’ (Wales), where Britain’s Cambrian rocks are completely revealed. 

Cambrian Distinguished from Extension

Thin mineralized animal fossils, including sponge spicules and likely worm tubes, are distinguished from the Ediacaran Period directly preceding the Cambrian. Some of the unique fossils of the biota from the Ediacaran may also have been animals delegate to living phyla, although this continues a somewhat debatable topic.

Cambrian Period Landscape

The topography of the Cambrian system differed greatly from such of the contemporary day. The geographic reorganisation is based on integrated geologic and biological proof. Fossils in continental-shelf sediments indicate the presence of at least three major faunal territories. This geographic analysis is supported by the presence of thick, warm-water carbonate-platform sediments that accumulated in a broad belt encircling the mainland.

Cambrian Location

The largest Cambrian faunal region is located around Gondwana, which stretched from the low northern latitudes to the high southern latitudes, just bare of the South Pole. The rocks and fossil associations of Gondwana show major changes that correspond to its great size and wide range of climates and environments. The Antarctic and Australian sectors of Gondwana halted in low latitudes through the Cambrian and have extensive carbonate deposits, although these of Antarctica are poorly exposed through the present-day polar ice cap. 

Scientific proof states that present-day North and South China were on separate tectonic plates. The fossil assemblies of South China have strong connections with those of both Australia and Kazakhstan, but details of the Cambrian geographic relationships reside unclearly.

At times, two almost reciprocally exclusive ecosystems are separated by temperature and salinity limits in the shallow water on the carbonate floors. Outer open-shelf films are characterized by high-diversity ecosystems that were widely disseminated around the continent. Fossils are usually the most copious and most diverse near the outer boundaries of the carbonate platform. Another Cambrian faunal territory surrounded the small continent of Baltica, which was discovered in middle to high southern latitudes. Cambrian shelf sediments of Baltica are relatively thin, rarely exceeding 250 metres (820 feet) in thickness, and are formed primarily of sandstone and shale. Seemingly as an outgrowth of cool-water environments, carbonate deposits are comparatively minor and very thin.

Cambrian Animals

Flora: The Cambrian vegetation was a little unusual from the Ediacaran. The principal taxa were the aquatic macroalgaeFuxianospira, Sinocylindra, and Marpolia. No calcareous macroalgae are distinguished from the period. Neither land plant (embryophyte) fossils are identified from the Cambrian. However, biofilms and microbial mats were well manifested on Cambrian tidal flats and beaches around 500 mya. Concerning this also microbes forming microbial Earth ecosystems, similar to modern soil crust of desert regions, adding to soil formation.

Fauna: As most animal growth during the Cambrian was aquatic. So all the causes of Fauna in the Cambrian period were Oceanic life. Trilobites were once considered to be the dominant life form at that time, but this has proven to be inaccurate. Arthropods were by far the most authoritative animals in the ocean, but trilobites were only an insignificant part of the total arthropod diversity. What made them so seemingly plentiful was their heavy armour augmented by calcium carbonate.

The period noted a step-change in the diversity and synthesis of Earth’s biosphere. The Ediacaran biota experienced a mass extinction at the start of the Cambrian Period, which resembled an increase in the excess and complexity of burrowing behaviour, which converted the seabed ecosystems. The seafloor was incorporated by microbial covers. By the completion of the Cambrian, burrowing animals had destroyed the mats in many domains through bioturbation. As a result, many of those organisms that were conditioned on the mats became obsolete. 

Around the same time, there was a rapid presence of delegates of all the mineralized phyla besides the Bryozoa, which emerged in the Lower Ordovician.

Approximately 515 million years ago, the number of species fitting extinct exceeded the number of new species which created mass extinction.

Clay minerals are the hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates that are available at times with varying amounts of iron, alkali, metals, magnesium, alkaline earth, and such other cations. They are generally found on or near some planetary surfaces. Clay minerals are formed mainly in the presence of water. They are proved to be very important to our life. Other theories of abiogenesis are involved in them. With them, they carry important constituents of the soils which have been beneficial to humans since time immemorial. 

 

In this Section, we will know about Various Types of Clay and Their Constituents. 

Kaolinite Clay or China Clay

The clay mineral is termed Kaolinite which has Al₂Si₂O5(OH)4 as its chemical composition. Kaolinite Clay is very much important as an industrial mineral. Kaolinite is a layered mineral of silicate coupled with silica which is SiO4, this is further linked through the oxygen atoms to an octahedral sheet of the alumina (AlO₆) octahedra. Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are called the kaolin or also known as China Clay. 

Bentonite

Bentonite is a type of absorbent swelling clay which majorly consists of montmorillonite.  This type of clay usually is formed from the weathering of the volcanic ash in the presence of seawater, after which it converts into volcanic gases that are present in the ash and clayey minerals. The Bentonite beds are white or pale blue or green in colour when exposed to fresh exposures, they can also turn to a cream colour and after which they can turn into yellow, red, or brown as the exposure is more.  

Montmorillonite

Montmorillonite is a very soft mineral that comes under the group of phyllosilicate minerals. These mineral forms when they precipitate from the water solution in the form of microscopic crystals. Called clay. This clay is named after Montmorillon in the country France.  The clay is in the ratio of 2:1, which means that it has two tetrahedral sheets of silica and a single octahedral sheet of the alumina. The particles are featured as plate-shaped with an average diameter of around 1 micrometer and have a thickness of about 0.96 nm. 

Powdered Bentonite

Bentonite clay is used by human beings to remove impurities on their skin, like oils, and other toxins from the body. This practice is done for thousands of years. Bentonite clay is also present in many skincare products. While some people also add this to foods or drinks with the aim to improve digestive issues or to remove toxins from the body.

Types of Clays

The main four types of clay are as follow:

• Earthenware clay

• Stoneware clay

• Ball clay

• Porcelain. 

All of these clays are used to make pottery. These seem all same but the texture, colour, and flexibilities differ a great deal.  

Tosudite

Magnesium Tosudite is a clay mineral with a 1:1 ratio interstratification of the compound name trioctahedral Mg chlorite and Sudoite and also dioctahedral Smectite.

Smectite

Smectite is also a clay mineral (like bentonite) that undergoes reversible expansion while absorbing the water.

Sepiolite

Sepiolite is the English name, while in German it is known as meerschaum which means ‘sea foam’. This is soft textured while clayey mineral which is often used in making tobacco pipes also called the meerschaum pipes. This is a complex magnesium silicate which is a specific chemical formula Mg4Si6O15(OH)2·6H2O, this can be present in the fibrous, fine-particulate, and solid forms.

Pyrophyllite

Pyrophyllite is a type of mineral which is phyllosilicate and this is composed of aluminium silicate hydroxide, the chemical formula which is Al2Si4O10(OH)2. This occurs in two forms crystalline folia and the form of compact masses, while there are distinct crystals as well which are well known.  

Pyrophyllite which occurs in the phyllite and schistose rocks is generally associated with kyanite used as an altered product.

Ball Clay

Ball clays are made up of kaolinitic sedimentary clays which are commonly constituted with 20–80% of kaolinite, 10 to 25% mica 6 to 5% of quartz. The localized seams in the same deposit have variations in their composition, this includes the quantity of these major minerals, which are accessorized minerals and carbonaceous materials like lignite. They form fine-grained and quite is quite plastic in nature, and this is unlike the earthenware clay. They produce fine quality pottery with white colour body.

Coral Bleaching Meaning – You might have heard about scuba diving. It’s a very beautiful and thrilling experience. Isn’t it? The beautiful and coloured corals can be seen under the sea. Do you know how these corals look so beautiful? They look so beautiful because their stunning colours come from marine algae called zooxanthellae. These algae live inside their tissue. The function of these tissues is to provide food to the corals. The corals can grow and reproduce with the help of these algae. 

When the corals are disturbed by external factors such as pollution or heat, they start expelling the algae. This leaves just the ghostly and transparent skeleton behind known as coral bleaching. When the algae leave the corals, it keeps fading until it looks like it is bleached. So, if we have to write the coral bleaching definition, we will write as – The leaving of algae from the corals, leaving the coral reef dead is called reef bleaching.

What Triggers Coral Reef Bleaching?

One of the most common coral bleaching causes is the change in the climate. We know that at present, global warming is the greatest threat to life on Earth. Because of global warming, planet Earth is warming up – the seas are warming up. This heating of ocean waters is one of the major causes of coral bleaching. There are other causes too such as pollution, overfishing, low tides, too much sunlight, and coastal development that causes coral to bleach. 

Effects of Coral Reef Bleaching

Coral reef bleaching is a threat to the environment. When these corals die, they never or rarely come back. The number of corals becomes limited and they struggle to reproduce. As a result, the coral family is extinguishing. 

Coral Bleaching’s Impact on Wildlife

Coral reefs are the support system for many biodiverse ecosystems. They are the source of survival for many species such as sea turtles, fishes, crabs, sea birds, jellyfishes, starfishes, shrimps, and many more. They provide shelter, spawning grounds, and protection to many species. Coral Reefs also are an important part of ocean food chains. As the coral reefs are destroyed because of bleachings, these marine lives and the ocean food chain gets disturbed and some species may face extinction. 

Coral Bleaching’s Impact on Humans

Coral reefs are a support system for humans living in coastal areas. They have an impact on people’s safety, food, and livelihoods. The Coral Reefs act as natural barriers to absorb the storm surges and the force of waves keeping the people of coastal areas safe. If there are no coral reefs, we have to build a seawall manually which will be very costly, will have fewer effects, and will be damaging to the environment. Coral bleaching also impacts fishes and the people who rely on fishes for their source of income. Also, coral reef tourism is a source of income for many individuals and also contributes to a nation’s economy. 

Do You Know?

The largest and richest coral reef in the world is the Great Barrier Reef. It has been protected since the 1970s. The fish population tripled after the marine sanctuary for Apo Island in the Philippines was created in the year 1982. The marine protected areas, where fishing and fishing methods are regulated, are called Reefs at Risk Revisited. The bleached great barrier reef is a threat to our marine beauty and also to humans.

How to Stop Coral Bleaching and Protect Coral Reefs?

Either we live in coastal areas or far from the sea, we can do our part to protect the coral reefs and stop coral bleaching. Whatever we do on the land, in some ways affects the water. So, we should take care of our activities to stop the pollution which will eventually impact global warming and other activities too so that the coral reef bleaching can be stopped. 

Here are a few to-do lists to stop coral bleaching and protect the coral reefs:

• While visiting the coral reefs, we should avoid touching them or disturbing them anyway. If we make any contact, it can damage the corals and may even kill them.

• The cosmetics that we use may harm the coral reefs. So, we should avoid cosmetics while visiting them.

• We should be careful while throwing the trash as marine trash is very harmful to the coral reefs. We should never throw plastics and other nonbiodegradable things near the beach or in the water to stop debris pollution. 

• The fertilizers that we use for the plants wash away in the water which harms the marine animals and the coral reefs. We should minimize the use of fertilizers. 

• We should try to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. The emission of greenhouse gases causes ocean acidification and increases ocean temperature. This becomes one of the main causes of coral bleaching. 

Drumlin’s meaning is quite simple. Drumlins are elongated, oval-shaped or say teardrop-hills of rock, sand, and gravel. A drumlin is by and large made up of glacial drift, formed underneath an ice sheet or moving glacier and oriented in the direction of ice flow. There are no strict specifications with respect to the size of a drumlin but they tend to be up to a few kilometers up to 2 kilometers long and up to 50m in relief.

How Do Drumlins Form?

Drumlin glacier develops in the form of clusters apparently close to the terminus of glaciers. The mechanisms of formation are though disputed. They seemingly have significant interpretive value for rate and direction of glacial movement.

Drumlins are usually found in wide-ranging lowland regions, with their long axes approximately parallel to the path of glacial flow. Though they are observed in a multitude of shapes, the glacier side is always steep and high, while the lee side is tapered and smooth mildly in the direction of ice movement. Drumlins can hugely differ in size, with lengths from 1 to 2 km, heights from 50 to 100 feet, and widths from 400 to 600 m.

Regions of Formation of Drumlins

They are extensive in formerly glaciated regions and are particularly copious in Canada, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden.

Besides, Drumlins are mostly found in clusters with their numbering counting in the thousands. Often organized in belts, they impede drainage such that the small lakes and swamps may form between them. Large drumlin fields are situated in central New York and central Wisconsin; in northwestern Canada; and southwestern Nova Scotia.

Composition of Drumlins

Most drumlins are made up of till, but they may differ largely in their composition. Some contain substantial amounts of gravel, whereas others are composed of rock underlying the till surface (rock drumlins). Drumlins are most commonly linked with smaller, glacially streamlined bedrock forms referred to as roches moutonnées.

Eskers

Eskers are the geological structures that are formed when the glacial melted water carries the sediments and deposit through subglacial tunnels. Thus, they can give relevant information with regard to the shape and dynamics of glaciers and ice sheets whereas Drumlins are developed when the ice sheets move in streamline over the rock residue. These are elongated, oval shaped hills.

Drumlins and Eskers

Drumlins and Eskers by definition may seem similar, but there are still certain differences that you need to know about. These are as follows:-

Bedrock

Bedrock, the sediment of solid rock which is essentially buried beneath the soil and other splintered or segregated substances (regolith). Bedrock is composed of igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rock, and it often caters to as the parent substance (the source of rock and mineral particles) for soil and regolith. In Earth’s nitrogen cycle, bedrock is also a source of nitrogen. A bedrock accumulation which takes place at Earth’s surface is known as an outcrop.

Fen is one of the wetlands types and wetlands are considered as one of the most important and diverse ecosystems. They serve an important role in feeding and nesting sites for various species and also one-third of the rare and endangered species of the Earth depends upon the wetlands directly or indirectly which makes them more important. In this article, we will learn about one of the wetland types i.e. Fens, which are biological hotspots where peat formation, as well as water presence throughout the year, can be seen. This topic plays an important role in Geology and Environmental Studies.

The Ramsar Convention of 1971 in Iran is related to wetlands and under the text of the Convention (Article 1.1), wetlands are defined as: “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”. According to the estimates of UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, roughly 6% of the Earth’s land surface are wetlands of which 2% are lakes, 30% bogs, 26% fens, 20% swamps, and 15% floodplains. 

Fen Meaning

It is derived from the term “Fenn” which was an old English word which supposed to have a proto-German origin. It is one of the types of wetlands and wetlands work as transitional zones between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It is a type of wetland where peat formation can be seen and which is fed by both grounds as well surface waters which are rich in minerals. Besides fens, bogs are also called peat formulating wetlands and both these are also known as mires. Water chemistry of fens is considered to be its unique feature which leads to having more minerals as well as more pH level as compared to bogs. It also consists of grasses, wildflowers, sedges, etc. The term “carr” is also associated with fens wetlands and is a type of fen where this wetland supports trees.

Definitions

Some of the standard definitions are mentioned below.

• The Environmental Protection Agency defines fens as “peat-forming wetlands that receive nutrients from sources other than precipitation” (EPA 2008) and as “freshwater peat-forming wetlands covered mostly by grasses, sedges, reeds, and wildflowers” (EPA 2004).

• The National Wetlands Research Center of the U.S. Geological Survey defines fen as “waterlogged, spongy ground containing alkaline decaying vegetation characterized by reeds, that develops into peat” (NWRC 2007).

• According to the textbook Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation, Paul A. Keddy offers a somewhat simpler definition of a fen as “a wetland that is usually dominated by sedges and grasses rooted in shallow peat, often with considerable groundwater movement, and with pH greater than 6.”

Features

The various features of fens are mentioned below.

• The water level in fens wetlands is present throughout the year. It fluctuates very little because the water table here is high. The stability of water in this type of wetland is stable.

• The water should not be drained along with the land close to it in order to prevent the area from drying and prevention of over weeds.

• A low level of oxygen leads to the decaying of the dead plants slowly which leads to peat formation in the fen.

• Due to the accumulation of peat in fens, the input of groundwater can be reduced or cut off which leads to making fens ombrotrophic. Fens can become more acidic in this way and can transit to big wetlands as well.

• Though they can be found all over the world most of the fens wetlands are found in the Northern Hemisphere especially in between mid to high latitudes.

• The composition of species can differ due to change in the chemistry of water but mostly they are dominated by sedges & mosses.

Types of Fens

These can be of the following types:

• One of the most common types of fens is sloping fens which are formed at the base of the mountains or hills. Because of the slope water discharges here from the landscape lying above. In the below diagram, the green area denotes the area of fen. 

• Another type of fens is basin fens which are used to originate as lakes or ponds as these are consist of partially decomposed plants. Generally, these are flat and occur at the margin of open water. As we can see in the diagram, water is being received from both the sources say ground and surface and when it is stable, floating peat mats can be seen.

 

Importance

We have learned about fen meaning and its features. The importance of fens are mentioned below:

• Fens are one of the most important types of wetlands.

• It contains a variety of flora and fauna. 

• It supports that vegetation that flourishes in fertile swamps as well as in bogs along with various animal species as well.

• It helps in the prevention of overflowing of the rivers by preventing sediments to flow into the rivers. 

• They work as groundwater discharge sites.

• They work as important shallow aquifers indicators.

• These wetlands serve as a home to black mad fish which is considered a rare species.

• They are an important biodiverse ecosystem that serves as a habitat for endangered as well as rare species.

Flora & Fauna

Due to the high level of mineral content and high pH level, it supports more diversity than bogs as it receives more water from the ground and surface. 

• According to the EPA, Whereas bogs are dominated by mosses, fens often are covered by rushes, sedges, grasses, and wildflowers. Some fens have parallel ridges of vegetation that form perpendicular to the downslope flow of the water, with less productive hollows separating these ridges (EPA 2008). 

• The examples of flora species found in pools are Beaked sedge, Whorl grass, Needle spike-rush, Sweet grasses, Common reed, Swamp meadow grass, and in typical fens are Flat sedge, Blysmus compressus, Great fen sedge, Lesser tufted sedge, Lesser pond sedge, Davall’s sedge, Dioecious sedge, Brown sedge, Tufted sedge, Slender sedge, Flea sedge, Greater pond sedge, Common spike-rush, etc whereas in fen carr are Narrow small-reed; Calamagrostis stricta Purple small-reed, Tussock sedge, Cyperus sedge, Wood club rush, etc.

• If we talk about fauna, then insects and insects eating species are common here like mosquitoes and horseflies, etc. along with insect-eating birds, as well as insect-eating mammals like shrews, voles, and muskrats, etc.

Conclusion

Thus, to sum in the end we can say that fens are one of the important types of wetlands that serve as transitional zones and 26% of the total wetlands are fens. Here, peat formation can be seen and consists of water content from both the ground as well as a surface which leads to having high mineral content and high pH level. This type of wetlands is also similar to bogs but there are many diverse wetlands as compared to bogs and if the pH level of these wetlands gets lowers it can be transitioned into bogs as well. It supports various kinds of flora and fauna as well. In this article, we have covered what fen, fen meaning, features, importance, and other related aspects which will help to understand one of the types of wetlands.