Category: Geography Notes PPT

Depending upon the gravitational pull of the earth, atmospheric pressure can be defined as a force exerted upon a surface by the atmospheric column. There are various units of measuring atmospheric pressure, including millimeters of mercury, psi, millibars, kilopascals, and dynes per square centimeter. Barometers consist of a mercury column in a glass tube that is commonly used to measure it. Changing the weight of the atmosphere with the rise or fall of the mercury level lets us analyze the change in atmospheric pressure.

Earth’s weather and climate are influenced by both atmospheric pressure and wind, which are known as the Earth’s controlling factors. Despite having different physical characteristics, atmospheric pressure and wind are closely related. 

Students can use the information in this study guide to prepare for any exam since we have provided an overview of the pressure and wind systems. Also, this article will help them understand the relationship between atmospheric pressure and temperature.

What is a Pressure System?

According to the definition of a pressure system, an area of the Earth’s atmosphere is defined by the rise and fall of its pressure. When compared to the surrounding air, the pressure in this region is unusually high or low. All of these phenomena collectively are called the pressure system.

As a result of atmospheric pressure differences, air constantly moves from high to low pressure. Due to the expansion and contraction of the air in response to heating and cooling, this difference occurs.

Parts of the Pressure System

There are two parts to the pressure system

1. High-Pressure System:

Light winds are associated with high-pressure systems beneath the surface, and subsidence is associated with high-pressure systems lower in the atmosphere. As a result of adiabatic or compressional heating, subsidence dries out an air mass. Consequently, high pressure usually corresponds to clear skies. The daytime temperature rises because there are no clouds to block the shortwave solar radiation. Since there are no clouds at night, longwave radiation is not absorbed and low temperatures are cooler during all seasons. When compared to a low-pressure system, a high-pressure system swirls the other way. This flow pattern is referred to as anticyclonic.

2. Low-Pressure System:

An area of low atmospheric pressure is one in which the pressure at sea level is lower than that at other nearby locations. The tropospheric upper levels experience areas of wind divergence, which leads to low-pressure systems.

The formation of a low-pressure system occurs when a desert or other landmass is heated up by greater sunlight. Since the warm air in localized areas is less dense than the surroundings, the warm air rises, lowering the atmospheric pressure. Monsoon circulation is influenced by pressure gradients created by large-scale thermal lows over continents. In low-pressure systems, the wind swirls counterclockwise because Earth spins and the Coriolis effect applies. The category in which this occurs is cyclonic.

Around the globe, low-pressure systems tend to develop over the Tibetan Plateau and the southern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. Known as depressions in Europe, low-pressure weather systems recur over a long period.

Millibars are the most common unit of measurement for these pressure systems. Everybody knows how important the atmosphere is. Weather conditions in particular regions are affected by this factor. An increase in air pressure alters the weather conditions accordingly. Whenever the air pressure increases, the weather becomes clearer, whereas when the air pressure falls, storms occur and the skies are cloudy.

Relationship Between Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature

In direct proportion to each other, atmospheric pressure and temperature are highly related. Temperature increases cause atmospheric pressure to rise as well, and vice versa.

In accordance with Gay-Lussac’s Law, the product of an initial pressure (P₁) and an initial temperature (T₁) is equal to the product of a final pressure (P₂) and a final temperature (T₂). 

Mathematically, it is written as P1T1=P2T2 

Let’s examine car tires as an example to understand the relationship better. As the temperature rises during summer, the molecules of air move and occupy more space, resulting in an increase in atmospheric pressure. During winter, the air molecules move slowly and are not as active, thus taking up less space — a less dense atmosphere results.

The Effect of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature in Terms of Geography:

The atmospheric pressure decreases when the temperature of a place increases. Temperature increases result in heat being emitted from the air.  The warm air expands. Since the molecules in the warm air become lighter, there is less force exerted on them. The opposite happens when the temperature drops, cooling the air and making it dense. As a result, a high-pressure area is formed.

Breccia rock is a clastic sedimentary rock made up of broken mineral fragments or rocks bonded together by a coarse-grained matrix that can be similar to or different from the composition of fragments.

The origin of the word “Beccia” is in Italian, language, in which it means broken stone, rubble. A breccia rock can have different sources, as represented by the named type including Impacts breccia, Sedimentary breccia, Igneous breccia, Hydrothermal breccia, and Tectonic breccia.

Brecciated Meaning – Brecciated, similar to the breccia in appearance is a rock composed of angular fragments that are cemented together by a fine-grained matrix, that can be either small or different from the composition of fragments.

Breccia Rock Type

Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock composed of angular or subangular fragments larger than 3 millimetres (0.8 inches). The breccia rock differs from conglomerate rock, which is composed of rounded clasts.

Breccia Formation

Breccia formation took millions of years. It forms where angular, broken fragments of mineral or rock deposits collect. The angular shape of the particles represents minimum transport. The breccia sedimentary rock generally forms as rock-falls and debris-flow deposits together with the cliffs, and underground along faults or where cave collapse and rock become cemented together by minerals over a long period. The type of rock formed in a specific location depends on the mineral fragments found in that area. The angular rock in the breccia can be easily seen with the naked eyes.

Breccia Types

Following are the different types of breccia sedimentary rock. 

Impact Breccia

Impact breccia is formed by the fracturing and fusion of rock under extreme pressure and temperature speedily induced during meteorite impacts. Impact breccia may be found on or below the crater, in the rim, or the ejecta evacuated beyond the crater.

The rock of this type may be recognized by its occurrence in or around a known impact crater and or in association with other products of impact cratering such as shattered stone, shocked minerals, impact glass, etc. An example of impact breccia is the Neugrad breccia, which was grounded in Neugrad impact.

Lunar Breccia

Lunar breccia is obtained by the smashing, melting, and mixing of the lunar surface material by large and small metric impact. Evidence of this process can be seen in the countless craters of different sizes which cover the moon.

Volcanic Breccia

Volcanic breccia is an extrusive igneous rock that is mainly composed of angular volcanic fragments resulting from brecciation or emplacement due to the volcanic eruption. This type of rock may or may not have a matrix. 

Tuff Breccia 

Tuff breccia is an extrusive igneous rock. The rock has a pyroclastic texture and is composed of coarse-grained fragments created during volcanic eruptions. The largest fragments less than 2.5 inches long are also observed in tuff breccia.

Limestone Breccia

A limestone breccia is a breccia that consists of clasts of varied types of limestone. The size of limestone breccia is about four inches (10 centimetres) across.

Fault Breccia

Fault breccia, also known as tectonic breccia is a breccia that was formed by tectonic forces along a localized zone of brittle deformation (a fault zone). The grinding and milling in fault zones occur when the two sides of the fault zone move along each other to obtain the material that is made up of loose fragments. Fault zones can be easily unfiltered by groundwater due to this fragmentation.

Fault Breccia Properties

• It has no cohesion

• It is usually an unconsolidated type of rock, as long as cementation occurs at a later stage.

• Sometimes a differentiation is made between fault gauge and fault breccia. The fault gauge has a smaller grain size. 

Sedimentary Breccia

Sedimentary breccia is a type of  clastic sedimentary rock.The rock is composed of angular to sub-angular, randomly oriented clasts of other sedimentary rock. The rock such as sedimentary breccias is formed by either avalanche, submarine debris flow, mudflow, or mass flow in a liquefied medium. 

Sedimentary breccia consists of angular, poorly deposited, immature fragments of rock in finer graze grounds which are obtained by slope movement. Thick sequences of sedimentary breccia are usually formed next to the fault scabs in grabens.

Did You Know?

• The breccia composition can be influenced by the climate.

• Both breccia and conglomerate are made up of fragments having larger than 2 millimetres (0.079.in) in size.

• The angular type of fragment in Breccia indicates that material has not been transported far from its origin.

• The striking feature of breccia has made them popular sculpture and architectural material.

• One of the best-known examples of breccia is the statue of the goddess Taweret in the British Museum.

• Breccia stone was used by the Romans in high-profile public buildings.

• A striking example of Breccia can be seen in the Pantheon in Europe.

• Breccia rock can also be in different colours. The colour of the matrix or cement together with the colour of the rock fragments ascertain the colour of the Breccia.

• Ejecta in impact breccia are the particles ejected from a particular area.

In geology, a pluton is a body of trespassing igneous rock (known as a plutonic rock) which is crystallized from magma steadily cooling beneath the Earth’s surface. Plutons include batholiths, dikes, stocks, sills, lopoliths, laccoliths, and other igneous creations. 

In practice, “pluton” generally implies a peculiar mass of igneous rock, essentially several kilometres in dimension, non-existing with a tabular, or flat, shape like those of dikes and sills.

Plutonic Rocks Examples

Examples of plutonic rocks include Cuillin in Skye, Cardinal Peak in Washington State, Denali in Alaska, Mount Kinabalu in Malaysia; and Stone Mountain in the United State of Georgia.

The most common rock types in plutons include monzonite, granite, granodiorite, tonalite, and quartz diorite. Usually, coarse-grained, light coloured plutons of these compositions are called granitoid.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Classification of igneous rocks is actually one of the confusing facts of geology. This is partly because of the historical reasons, partly because of the nature of magmas, and partly because of the different benchmark that could potentially be used to classify rocks. That being said, let’s find out what the names of the different rocks mean.

Criteria of Classification of Igneous Rocks

There are different benchmarks that could be used to classify igneous rocks. Among many of them, various are:

1. Minerals Present in the Rock: 

The minerals in a rock and their corresponding proportions in the rock depend highly on the chemical composition of the magma. This further works well as a classification scheme if all of the minerals that could presumably crystallize from the magma have done so – generally the case for steadily cooled plutonic igneous rocks.  But, volcanic rocks generally have their crystallization interfered with the explosion and quick cooling on the surface.  In such rocks, there are most commonly minerals or glass which are too small to be readily determined. Hence, a system of classification based entirely on the minerals present can only be used.

2. Texture of the Rock: 

to a large extent, rock texture depends on the cooling history of the magma. Hence, rocks with similar minerals present and chemical composition could have largely different textures. In fact, we usually use the textural criteria to subdivide igneous rocks into plutonic (generally moderate to coarse-grained) and volcanic (generally glassy, fine-grained, or porphyritic) varieties.

3. Colour: 

The colour of rocks typically depends on the minerals it contains in addition to their grain size. Usually, rocks that contain ample quartz and feldspar are light-coloured, and rocks that consist of abundant amphiboles (ferromagnesium minerals), olivines, and pyroxenes are dark-coloured. However, remember that colour can be misleading when applied to rocks of similar composition but different grain size.

For example, granite contains a large amount of quartz and feldspar and is usually light-coloured. But a rapidly cooled volcanic rock with a similar composition as the granite could be completely glassy and black coloured (i.e. obsidian). Still, we can divide rocks in general into felsic rocks and mafic rocks.

4. Chemical Composition: 

Chemical composition of igneous rocks is a very distinctive feature. The composition generally reflects the composition of the magma, and thus offers information on the source of the rock. The chemical composition of the magma identifies the minerals which will crystallize and their proportions.

A set of hypothetical minerals which can crystallize from a magma having similar chemical composition as the rock (known as the Norm), can expedite comparison between rocks. Still, since chemical composition can vary continuously, there are several natural breaks to expedite divisions between different rocks. Chemical composition cannot be easily identified in the field, making classification based on chemistry somewhat impractical.

Magmas, from which all igneous rocks are extracted, are compounded liquid solutions. Since they are solutions, their chemical composition can differ incessantly within a range of compositions. Due to an ongoing fluctuation in chemical composition, there is no simple way to set limits within a classification scheme.

Continental Rise meaning will seem to be very simple once you go through the given definition. There’s a surprising place where possibly half of the world’s sediments are settling. These materials that collapse by eroding and then transported by rivers and streams aren’t always ending up in stream beds, river deltas or flood zones. Rather, many of them finish up in a place that’s not on land at all. These sediments are sent to the continental rise below the ocean, where enough of them settle that it induces a distinctive mound that encompasses the world’s continental edges.

                          

Continental Margin

Beginning from the continental edge, where dry land turns to ocean, the first of three parts of the region known as the continental margin, is the shallow, gentle descent of the continental shelf. This area can be as tapered as 15 miles and as wide as 228 miles.

Think of it as an elongated hill of sediments deep beneath the ocean’s surface. The continental rise is also part of a bigger region known as the continental margin.

After the continental shelf, you would be in for a trace of a fall. Next is the steep cliff of the continental slope. The transformation between the continental shelf and the continental slope is what we call the continental shelf break. It’s not really an exact spot, but more like a region where the continental margin moves from the less steep continental shelf to the much steeper continental slope. The continental slope is nowhere near to smooth and rather, is marked by innumerable, submarine canyons that run perpendicular to the continental slope.

Ultimately, after the continental slope, you would get access to the third part of the continental margin. While it’s greater level than the continental slope, it’s not as very smooth as what follows – the expansive ocean floor.

Difference Between Continental Slope and Continental Rise

Continental slope is a slope with a steep or gentle gradient. It is a sectional division after the continental shelf. On the other hand, Continental rise is simply the deposition of debris or sediments brought by the currents.

Animals that Live in the Continental Rise

Talking about the continental rise marine life, we can find animals like Crab, cod, tuna, lobster, sole, halibut, mackerel and Dungeness in the continental rise depth. Permanent rock fixtures are home to anemones, clams, corals, mussels, oysters, scallops, and sponges. Huge sea animals such as whales and sea turtles can be found in continental shelf areas as they follow migration routes.

The Geologic Basis For the Continental Rise

The concept of the continental rise appeared across the classic passive margin area of the western North Atlantic. There the continental rise envelops the ocean crust fringing the fractured and the faulted continental margin. It is the location where the sediment discards from the continent into the deep sea deposits. Along active margins where ocean crust is being subducted under the continental crust, the margin is often manifested by an ocean trench; there is no continental rise. However in some regions where there is a massive thickness of sediment on the ocean floor making way to the subduction zone, or where the supply of sediment from the continent into the subduction zone totally brims up the trench, a narrow continental rise may occur.

Fun Facts

• The continental rise is the gently disposed slope between the substructure of the continental slope and the deep ocean floor.

• The expression “continental rise” was initially used by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen in their narrative of the effects of the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake.

• It was formally described by Heezen et al. in GSA Special Paper 65 in 1959.

• “Since the continental slope is restricted to gradients higher than 1:40, the lower portion of the continental margin is split into a separate province, the continental rise”.

• In many regions, domestic morphologic characteristics interfere with the usual slopes such that neither the upper or lower limits of the continental rise are well described.

Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral made up primarily of calcium magnesium carbonate (CaMg(CO₃)₂). A sedimentary carbonate rock consisting primarily of the mineral dolomite is also known as a dolostone rock or dolostone rock type. The word “dolostone” is often used to refer to the dolomitic rock type. Dolomite is a type of limestone in which the mineral dolomite, calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg(CO₃)₂], dominates the carbonate fraction. Dolomite also exists in an amorphous form, known as dolomite powder.

Carl Linnaeus is credited with being the first to describe the mineral dolomite in 1768. Deodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801), a French naturalist and geologist, first identified it as a rock in buildings of the old city of Rome in 1791, and later as samples collected in the mountains now known as the Dolomite Alps of northern Italy. After Dolomieu, Nicolas-Theodore de Saussure was the first to name the mineral.

Properties of Dolomite

• The trigonal-rhombohedral system is used to crystallise dolomite. It forms crystals that are white, tan, green, or pink in colour. Dolomite is a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium ions arranged in an alternating structural structure. It does not dissolve or effervesce as quickly as calcite in cold dilute hydrochloric acid unless it is in fine powder form (dolomite powder). Twinning of crystals is very popular. Colourless, translucent, buff-coloured, pinkish, or bluish dolomite crystals. 

• Granular dolomite is a medium to dark grey, brown, or white granular dolomite found in rocks. Dolomite crystals vary in transparency from translucent to transparent, but dolomite grains in rocks are usually translucent or nearly opaque. 

• The lustre varies from dull to subvitreous. Dolomite, like calcite, cleaves into six-sided polyhedrons with diamond-shaped faces. Dolomite and calcite have different relationships between lamellar twinning and cleavage planes, and this distinction can be used to differentiate the two minerals in coarse-grained rocks like marbles. 

• In dolomite and calcite, there are relationships between lamellar twinning and cleavage planes. When thin parts of the minerals are examined under a microscope, this disparity can be seen.

• Some dolostones have granular dolomite, with individual grains varying in size from microscopic to a few millimetres in diameter. The majority of dolomite marbles are coarsely granular, with individual grains varying in size from 2 to 6 millimetres (0.079 to 0.24 inch).

• Dolomite vein grains may be several centimetres in diameter. Dolomite crystals in saddle-shaped clusters, most of which occur on fracture surfaces, range in size from 0.5 to 2 centimetres (0.20 to 0.79 inch) in diameter.

• Dolomite, iron-dominant ankerite, and manganese-dominant kutnohorite form a solid solution. The crystals have a yellow to brown hue due to the small quantities of iron in the structure. Manganese replacements account for up to 3% MnO in the structure. 

• The crystals have a rosy pink colour due to the high manganese content. Magnesium is also replaced in the structure by lead, zinc, and cobalt. Dolomite Mg₃Ca(CO₃)₄ is a mineral that is closely related to huntite Mg₃Ca(CO₃)₄.

Composition of Dolomite

Ferrous iron usually replaces some of the magnesium in dolomite, and a complete sequence between dolomite and ankerite [CaFe(CO₃)₂] is very possible. Manganese may also be used to replace magnesium, but only to a small degree and usually only in conjunction with iron. Barium and lead for calcium, as well as zinc and cobalt for magnesium, are known to substitute within the dolomite structure, though in small quantities.

Dolostones have been found to contain nearly all of the natural elements in trace amounts. However, it is unknown which ones are found in dolomite; others may be found in other mineral constituents of the examined rocks. Just a few of these elements, such as strontium, rubidium, boron, and uranium (U), are known to occur definitively within the dolomite structure.

Dolomite effervesces with dilute hydrochloric acid, but more slowly than calcite; it tends to smoulder slowly in general, and in some cases only after the rock has been powdered or the acid has been warmed, or both. In the field, this variation in the character of effervescence is normally used to differentiate dolomite from calcite. Staining methods, which are often based on chemical properties or standard compositions, may be used in the lab to differentiate between these minerals. The stains commonly used are particularly useful for examining rocks composed of alternate lamellae of dolostone and limestone composition.

Structure of Dolomite

Dolomite is a calcium element or magnesium element carbonate mineral. CaMg(CO₃)₂ is the formula unit composition. The trigonal crystal system of dolomite has a rhombohedral habit. Unlike magnesian calcites, calcium and magnesium are divided into complete separate planes in ideal dolomite. Just a few per cent of calcium is substituted for magnesium in most dolomite samples, and vice versa. 

In a condensed form, the dolomite structure is similar to that of calcite, but magnesium ions replace calcium ions in any other cation layer. As a result, the ideal dolomite structure will include a calcium layer, a carbonate layer, a magnesium layer, another carbonate layer, and so on. The Dolomites, unlike calcites, may exhibit order-disorder relationships, as defined for potassium feldspars. This happens because the purity of some of the cation layers isn’t perfect for example, some calcium layers may contain magnesium, and some magnesium layers may contain calcium. 

The word proto dolomite is also used to describe Holocene dolomites with less-than-ideal dolomite structures. The majority of ancient dolostone dolomites, on the other hand, tend to be well organised. In technical literature, modifications that may represent a variety of calcium-versus-magnesium layering aberrations are discussed extensively.

Distribution of Dolomite

Dolomite is a common mineral found in Spain, the United States, Canada, Switzerland, Austria, and Hungary. When ground, dolomitic limestone (dolostone) can be used as a soil liming material, as well as for building stones and gravel.

Despite the presence of vast deposits of dolomite in the geological record, there is no evidence of dolomite formation under current environmental conditions, such as marine sediments and soils. Dolomite preparation in the laboratory at room temperatures and pressures is still one of the most difficult tasks in mineralogy.

Formation of Dolomite

Modern dolomite formation has been discovered in supersaturated saline lagoons along the Rio de Janeiro coast of Brazil, including Lagoa Vermelha and Brejo do Espinho, under anaerobic conditions. Many people believe that dolomite can only form with the aid of sulfate-reducing bacteria e.g. Desulfovibrio brasiliensis. 

Low-temperature dolomite, on the other hand, can be found in natural habitats that are rich in organic matter and microbial cell surfaces. This happens as a result of carboxyl groups associated with organic matter forming a complex with magnesium. Dolomite is found in large deposits in the geological record, but it is relatively uncommon in modern environments. 

In 1999, the first reproducible inorganic low-temperature syntheses of dolomite and magnesite were reported. During periodic periods of dissolution and reprecipitation, the initial precipitation of a metastable “precursor” (such as magnesium calcite) will eventually change into more and more of the stable phase (such as dolomite or magnesite). Breaking Ostwald’s step rule is the general concept that governs the direction of this irreversible geochemical reaction.

A biogenic occurrence of dolomite has been discovered. The development of dolomite in the urinary bladder of a Dalmatian dog, probably as a result of illness or infection, is one example.

Dolomite Uses

The various type of dolomite uses are discussed below:

• Dolomite is used as an ornamental stone, a concrete aggregate, and a magnesium oxide source, as well as in the Pidgeon magnesium production process. It is a significant petroleum reservoir rock that also serves as the host rock for massive strata-bound MVT ore deposits of base metals including lead, zinc, and copper. Dolomite is often used in place of calcite limestone as a flux for the smelting of iron and steel when calcite limestone is unavailable or too expensive. Therefore, known as dolomite limestone. The processing of float glass necessitates a large amount of refined dolomite.

• Dolomite and dolomitic limestone are used in horticulture as a pH buffer and magnesium source in soils and soilless potting mixes. In marine (saltwater) aquariums, dolomite is used as the base to help buffer changes in the pH of the water.

• Calcined dolomite is also used as a catalyst in the high-temperature gasification of biomass to kill tar. Particle physics researchers want to create particle detectors under layers of dolomite so that they can find as many exotic particles as possible. Dolomite can insulate against cosmic ray interference without contributing to background radiation levels because it contains only trace amounts of radioactive materials.

• Dolomite is highly prized by collectors and museums as it forms huge, translucent crystals, in addition to being an industrial mineral. The specimens found in the Eugui, Esteribar, Navarra (Spain) magnesite quarry are considered among the best in the world. You can easily find the dolomite powder price on the internet.

Did You Know?

• Dolomite can be found in several parts of Europe, Canada, and Africa.

• Rare hot pink dolomite varieties can be found in Africa’s Congo.

• The Dolomite Problem refers to the debate among scientists about the origins of dolomite beds.

• Dolomite does not bubble when exposed to acid, which is a distinguishing feature between dolomite and limestone.

• The Dolomites are an Italian mountain range composed of dolomite rock.

• Dolomite can be used as a calcium or magnesium supplement.

The Indian civilization has always been agrarian. Right from the Vedic Saraswati civilization to the modern times, farmers have cultivated this rich land and cherished their bond with Mother Nature. It is no wonder then that India is a land of abundance and wisdom. 

Agriculture farming in India is a century-old activity, and is currently the highest contributor to the GDP of India. Agriculture remains the largest contributor to the country’s GDP and farmers constitute 58% of India’s population. It means much of India remains untouched by the mindlessness of consumerism. Under its Agriculture Export Policy, the Government of India aims to increase agricultural export by over $60 billion by 2022. This means, the agricultural activity in India will be doubling. If we describe the farmers of India, they constitute 58% of the country’s population. Agriculture is the primary source of income for the mentioned percentage of the population.

The Indian food industry also aims to grow by leaps and bounds.  Already, the Indian food market stands as the 6th-largest globally with food processing covering over 32% of the country’s food industry. Thus, we see that India is enriched by both traditional and commercial forms of agriculture. 

Agricultural Methods of the Indian Farmer

Agriculture farming in India is the oldest activity and has been the major livelihood for farmers. Over the years, farming methods in India have changed, thanks to the technology invention making the lives of farmers easy. Socio-cultural practices, climatic conditions, and other aspects have also contributed to the innovation in Indian farming. Currently, both traditional farming methods in India and modern farming are practiced.

Let us check some of the old and modern farming techniques in India

1. Primitive Farming – One of the oldest techniques in India, primitive farming is practiced in small farms with traditional instruments like a hoe, digging sticks, etc. Farmers depend upon soil fertility, environmental conditions and other factors like heat for the harvest. This method is usually employed by those who use the output for their consumption. This technique is also called “Slash and Burn” farming where farmers burn the land once the crops have been harvested. 

2. Subsistence Farming – Cultivation takes places across wide and larger land areas with two types of crops : wet and dry. Wet crops include paddy and dry crops grown are wheat, maize and pulses. This method demands extensive use of chemical fertilizers and different methods of irrigation.

3. Commercial Farming – This technique is a modern day farming method where the farmers use a variety of new-age tools for surplus profits. Insecticides and fertilizers are also used because the crops grown are spread across large patches of land. It contributes a great percentage to the country’s GDP. While farmers in Haryana, Punjab and West Bengal practice commercial farming techniques, farmers of Orissa continue to prefer subsistence farming for large productions.

4. Plantation Farming – It is another subset of commercial farming. It makes use of both labor and technology to ensure the process is sustainable as plantations are spread across huge patches of land. It includes both agriculture and industry because of the nature of the crops grown. 

Modern Farming Methods in India

Besides the above-mentioned farming techniques in India, there are other methods followed in different regions of the country. Much of these don’t fall under traditional farming methods in India. This includes:

1. Aeroponics System

Aeroponics is the process where plants are grown in the air or mist environment without the use of soil. It is the subset of hydroponics, and suspends the plant root in the air to work. Farmers, by using this method will have better control over the amount of water to use.

2. Aquaponics

Aquaponics is a closed-loop system that relies majorly on the symbiotic relationship between aquaculture and agriculture for fertilization. This farming method combines conventional aquaculture with hydroponics.

3. Hydroponics

The hydroponics method is a less-soil type of farming, and it doesn’t require any type of soil. The process involves growing healthy plants without the inclusion of solid medium using nutrients including water solution which is mineral-rich. Hydroponic farming is the subset of hydroculture, and the nutrients used in hydroponic farming systems have different sources.

4. Monoculture

This method is the raising of a single crop in a specific area of farming. However, in a country like India, the Monoculture technique of farming isn’t widely followed. Indoor farming like growing medicinal plants falls under the monoculture. In plain words, monoculture is a modern agriculture practice where a single crop or plant is grown.