Category: Geography Notes PPT

It is a secondary mineral that forms under the oxidized zone of copper sulfide deposits. The cuprite mineral frequently occurs in association with native copper, malachite, tenorite, azurite, chrysocolla, and a variety of iron oxide minerals. 

Cuprite was first discovered by Wilhelm Karl Ritter Von Hadingier in 1845 and its name is derived from the Latin cuprum because of its copper content.

The mineral is found in Atrial Mountain, Urai Mountain, and Sardinia and in more isolated locations in France, Chile, Bolivia, Cornwall, Arizona, and Namibia.

The table given below shows the physical properties of cuprite.

Cuprite Properties

Cuprite Chemical Formula

The cuprite chemical formula is CU₂O.

Cuprite Healing Properties

• The high copper content in copper makes this stone wonderful for the brain.

• The crystal eases the anxiety and worries of a person and supports him in the stage of emotional turmoil.

• Cuprite strengthens meditation and helps to deliver the spiritual message of both the human being and the divine to each other.

• It liberates oxidative stress and enhances analytical abilities.

• It is an excellent stone to help with females’ reproductive problems and provide regulating and balancing activities.

• Cuprite has been proved in curating the disease related to the skeletal system, tissues, dizziness, alcoholism, addictive habit, vitamin assimilation, oxygenation of the blood, cramps, etc.

• Cuprite maintains the energy level, stamina, enthusiasm, and vigour of the body.

Cuprite Uses

• Cuprite is widely used as a colourant to produce red ruby glass since the first and second Milena BCE.

• Cuprite is very seldom used for jewellery because of its brittle nature. It is generally used for cabochons or ornamental cravings.

• In meditation, cuprite may be used to ground through the root chakra into the deeper energies of Earth.

• Cuprite has proved to be a wonderful tool for those who want to connect deeper with the energies of the Earth on which we live on.

Crycholla Cuprite

Crycholla cuprite is a hydrated copper phyllosilicate mineral and mineraloid with chemical formula (CU, Al₂)H₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄.nH₂O. The name Crycholla is derived from the Greek word “ Chrysos” meaning gold and kola meaning glue, together means kola glue. Deposits of Crycholla are widely occurring in the massive form, rather than in crystals. The colour of the crystal ranges from medium greenish blue to light turquoise blue, green, and blue-green. 

The crystal is found in Zimbabwe, the Congo, Russia, Czech Republic, Spain, Britain, Zaire, Australia, Indonesia, Mexico, Chile, Peru, Israel, USA, and the Czech Republic,

Crycholla Cuprite is quite a supportive energy stone that inspires verbal expression. It helps both men and women to communicate most lovingly. It is the powerful stone that encourages the person to speak out about those things that are quite essential. It was historically used by American Indian people to bring a strengthening and calming energy.

As Crycholla Cuprite is a copper-based stone, it forms when copper oxidizes.

Cuprite Malachite  

Cuprite Malachite is a green copper carbonate hydroxide mineral with the chemical formula CU₂CO₃(OH)₂. It is formed by the surface weathering process of copper ore and is generally not used for copper extraction due to its insignificant resource and inadequate metallurgical recovery.

The mineral occurs in different parts of the world including Congo, Gabon, Zambia, Namibia, Mexico, Australia, and with the largest deposit/mine in the Urals region, Russia. It is used as a mineral pigment in green paints since antiquity, for decorative purposes, ornamental stone, and gemstone. 

Azurite Cuprite 

Azurite Cuprite, also known as chessylite is a soft deep blue copper mineral produced by the weathering of copper ore deposits. It is a mineral with the chemical formula Cu₃(CO₃)₂(OH)₂. It is known widely for its deep blue to violet-blue colour. The Azurite Cuprite is not a common and abundant mineral but its beautiful colour grabs attention.  Azurite is naturally occurring in Sinai and the Eastern Desert of Egypt.

Azurite is often used as a bead, and as jewellery, and also as an ornamental stone.

Did You Know?

• Cuprite was named by Wilhelm Karl von Haidinger in 1845 from the Latin term cuprum, meaning copper. 

• Cuprite often occurs mixed with copper-bearing minerals such as cuprite malachite, chrysocolla cuprite, and azurite cuprite.

• Cuprite is also known as Ruby copper, or red copper because of its beautiful red colour.

• Despite its nice colour, it is rarely used in jewellery due to its low Mohs hardness of 3.5-4.

• Cuprite often pseudomorphs into malachite, which implies its composition changes to malachite while retaining cuprite’s external crystal form.

• In 1970, the finest and gem quality cuprite was mined in Organza, Southwest Africa.

• An excellent stone combining cuprite and chrysocolla comes from the Sonora valley in Northern Mexico and is referred to as Sonoran Sunset or Sonora Sunrise stone.

The basic meaning that the word environment conveys is surroundings. Whatever we see in our surroundings is a part of our environment and contributes to its formation. Environmental science is a budding aspect of science and higher studies that deals with the study of interactions between different species of flora and fauna that exist in nature. The flora comprises all the species of plant life found on the earth whereas fauna consists of all the animal species you’d see in your surroundings. Together, flora and fauna make our environment. 

What is Natural Environment? 

The natural environment comprises all the living and nonliving things that occur naturally In the environment. Natural in this context means “anything that isn’t man-made or artificial”. The basic sense that the term natural environment conveys is “anything related to the earth”, anything which occurs in nature without any manufacturing process in a factory! 

What is Our Natural Environment Made of? 

As iterated earlier, the natural environment includes any component which occurs naturally in the environment without any processing by humans. Our natural environment consists of:

• All the ecological units of an ecosystem. All these units have been unaffected by human civilization and its advancement. This includes all the species of bizarre animals found in nooks and corners of the earth and any vegetation that grows in any part of the world. Any living organisms including even the smallest microorganism found in any part of the world. 

• The other component of the environment is the non-living component. This includes every single non-living component that exists naturally in nature. Like the stones, water, air. Anything non-living has existed in the same state for a long time and continues to occur in nature.

Natural Environment Examples 

Still, confused about what the natural environment exactly is? Well, here’s a list of natural environment elements, this will give you a better idea about. The given list includes objects you see in your surroundings every day, all these objects are an integral part of our natural environment.

The examples given above are a few examples of the parts of our natural environment. 

Types of Natural Environment

Our natural environment could further be divided into domains. These domains are 

• Lithosphere

• Atmosphere

• Biosphere

• Hydrosphere

All these domains together make up the environment. 

The lithosphere consists of the earth’s crust. All the rocks, different layers of soil, and minerals found in the earth’s crust are a part of the lithosphere. This domain facilitates the lives of forests and trees, and hence they’re interdependent. 

The hydrosphere is the domain that comprises water bodies. Hydra means water in Latin. Hydrosphere hence includes all the forms of water bodies you can find on earth. The rivers, lakes, oceans, seas, and ponds. All of them come under the hydrosphere. 

The Atmosphere refers to the thin blanket of air that surrounds our planet. This thin blanket of air is held together by the gravitational force and is responsible for protecting us from harmful UV radiation. The atmosphere holds several gases in a specific ratio. Few of the major gases found in the atmosphere are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. 

The biosphere refers to all the living organisms found on mother earth. Ranging from tiny insects to the giant blue whale, all of these are a part of the biosphere. The biosphere is dependent on all the other domains since no organism on earth can survive without air, water, or soil. Hence, these domains are interdependent. 

What is a Manmade Environment? 

Man-made, the word is self-explanatory. Man-made means anything which is produced due to human kind’s efforts. Anything which isn’t found in the surroundings naturally is termed as man-made. The world, in which all of us live is a blend of both the natural environment and the man-made environment. 

Examples of Artificial Environment

When you look around yourself, you’d find various objects in your home. Objects have been made out of naturally existing objects but human beings modified these objects according to their convenience. For instance, consider a door. A door is generally made out of wood. Wood comes from trees which are a part of the biosphere, however, human beings have modified the wood and transformed it into a door. This is how the artificial or man-made environment came into being. Given below are a few other man-made environment examples that would help you to get a better understanding. 

Our man-made environment consists of electronic elements. If you look around the house, you will find several electronic devices such as a television, fan, air conditioner, to name a few. All these electronic devices are made by human beings to make our lives more convenient. Electricity is the basic source for all these electronic devices and the electricity is produced by natural sources like wind, coal, solar. Hence artificial or man-made environment is derived from the natural environment to improve the quality of our life. 

The deposits of minerals have different  shapes, which depend on how they were deposited. The most common shape of mineral deposition is mostly the tabular form. The mineral deposit in the form of a filling is mostly situated in layers of rock that are parallelly placed. The orientation of this ore body is to be marked by its dip (this is the angle which it makes with the horizontal structure) and this strike (the position which it takes in regard to the four points of the compass). The Rock that is lying above the ore body is known as the hanging wall and the rock which is lying below the ore body is called the footwall.  

Analysis of Footwall Morphology

Under the U.S Geological Survey National Elevation Dataset that is elevation data, we will analyze footwall morphology along each fault, with a horizon of 30 m resolution. The data is very much coarse and have particularly the accurate delineation of the catchments draining of the Stone Creek and Sweetwater footwalls. Higher‐resolution (that is 10 m) data is utilized only as a part of the study area, hence we use the same 30 m data to make comparison results from all the different kinds of footwalls. For each of these faults, we need to extract the footwall catchments which is >0.05 km2 in area and the drain across the map that is traced is the active fault (the darker shaded areas). 

In the first attempt at quantifying the footwall morphology, we are required to calculate the simplest possible measures of these catchments that is their area, relief, and their mean slope.

To assess further along with the strike variations in footwall relief, we need to project the extracted footwall catchments which are onto a fault parallel to the profile. At each of the positions along the profile we then calculate the maximum, mean, and minimum elevations in the fault‐normal direction. The footwall relief at each point is the difference between the maximum elevations and minimum elevations. This method is quite sensitive to the small‐scale variations in which the plan‐view catchment shape is not the true measure of an individual catchment which has relief because of the catchments that got widened away from the fault. In these places, the swath is not exact to the fault parallel. However, this method allows us to derive a continuous type footwall relief profile and then eliminate the issues that are inherent in the arbitrary selection along with the striking profile. As a check, we also need to calculate the relief in the individual catchments as a function of the outlet position along strike; and the overall patterns and length scales that are very much similar to those which are derived from this profiling method.

For the suspect that relief in these tectonically active footwalls may be strengthened the limited, implying a relationship between the topographic slope and the relief, we also are required to calculate the average catchment slopes within these extracted regions. 

We then determine the mean topographic slope for each of the catchments, using the slope values which are measured over a 3 × 3 cell (90 × 90 m) size window. The slope will be estimated using the 30 m resolution digital elevation model which will significantly underestimate the true meter‐scale that the slope values, while these estimates and will provide a useful means to compare the slopes which are averaged over the scale of individual hillslopes, that is present along the strike and between the different footwalls.

Catchment Patterns

For both that is the Stone Creek and the Sweetwater faults, there are cuts across a smooth and low‐relief surface which developed on the Archean gneiss. It is being tilted to the southeast by Miocene which is faulting of the Ruby Range block. These faults define the small range fronts which are quite steep and is linear near the fault and the strike centers and they become more diffused and difficult to separate from the inherited topography that is on the Ruby Range block near the fault tips. Both these footwalls represent asymmetric map‐view catchment patterns where the smallest catchments may occur near the fault strike center, which we need to infer the displacement maxima. The Catchment areas also increase and progressively advance towards the fault tips. The location of the smallest catchments near this strike center is close to the inferred displacement maximum, which is somewhat counterintuitive. Everything being the same, higher displacements near these faults in the midpoint should also lead to higher rates of footwall incision, and therefore larger the structure, the more widely spaced catchments will be. Both the footwalls are then composed only with Archean gneiss. This is done so that lithology swill is not a significant control on the catchment size.

The Blacktail and the Red Rock footwalls also show a greater variation in the along‐strike distribution of catchment areas which is single‐segmented. The largest catchments, which are the Beaver head River and the Blacktail Deer Creek located in the Blacktail footwall and the Big Sheep and Little Sheep Creeks which is located in the Red Rock footwall, are the antecedent to these faults’ structures. They are based on their regional extent and their continuity across several footwall blocks. The catchments which are being developed in response to this fault displacement have no distinct pattern that emerges. We are required to interpret this as to take due action in part of the fault tip propagation into these areas of significant and pre-faulting topography system. 

Glaciers are present on the Earth in the form of ice sheets in the polar regions which are known as continental glaciers but that does not mean glaciers are only present in the polar regions. They are found in all other parts of the world except the continent of Australia. These are great sources of fresh water on earth that are present in the form of dense ice. In this article, we will be talking about this landform. In this, we will learn about the meaning or definition of the glacier, their distribution, benefits, and other related concepts. This article will help you to understand the very important landform of the Earth and helps you in your studies.

Glacier Meaning and Definition

It is a body of dense ice that moves slowly. It is a perennial structure that forms because of the accumulation of recrystallization of ice, snow, rock, sediments, or any other form which originates on land. They exist where the average annual temperature is closer to the freezing point and precipitation in winters have to snow and especially exist in those areas where temperatures of the current year do not affect the snow accumulation of the last whole year. This continuous accumulation of ice leads to the formation of glaciers. These glaciers look like mountains or peaks and also termed sometimes as mount glacier or glacier mountain.

Mendenhall Glacier in Alaska is a type of mountain glacier as well as a temperate glacier which also consists of a glacial lake and glacial caves. Glacier ridge can be seen in various mountain ranges as well.

According to the Oxford Learner Dictionary, “ glacier means a large mass of ice, formed by snow on mountains, that moves very slowly down a valley.”

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, “ glacier means a large mass of ice that moves slowly.”

Types of Glacier

Glaciers can be majorly divided into two classifications based on geographic locations such as

The glacier mountain finds in the tropical regions are known as tropical glaciers. For example, glaciers present in India and Pakistan which are tropical countries.

The glacier mountain or range or sheets present in the temperate regions are known as temperate glaciers. For example, the Fox glacier in Newzealand or Mendenhall glacier in Alaska are considered temperate glaciers.

Other Types of Glacier Mountain are Classified as Under:

These are massive thick glaciers that covered most of the planet during the ice age. They are present on the gentle terrain and sometimes they are so thick that they cover the underlying features as well. From a central accumulation zone, these sheets move in all directions outwards. For example, the Antarctic ice sheets.

The floating parts of ice sheets are known as ice shelves. For example, there are a lot of such ice shelves in Greenland and Ellesmere Island.

These are restricted to mountain plateaus and are smaller ice sheets. For example, on Baffin Island the presence of the Penny Ice Cap.

These are formed inside or near the mountains in a bowl-like depression. Mostly due to avalanches, the ice or snow accumulation occurs here from the surrounding slopes. For example, Lower Curtis glacier in Washington.

They are formed on the walls of the glacial valley and found in the regions where there are steep mountains. For example, in the Alps mountains, they are common.

These are the glacier rock that finds their ways to reach the oceans and are insensitive to climate change.

Distribution 

They are found on all the continents of the earth except Australia. The distribution in different continents and regions of the world is mentioned below in the table:

Climate

• The climate and temperature of the glaciers vary with locations and time. 

• Somewhere the entire region is under the melting point and sometimes it is only under the melting point in the sole. 

• In some regions, it can have a combination of both such as the base layer is at the melting point but the upper layer is below the melting point. 

• The temperature of 0 degrees celsius can be seen in the temperate glaciers. 

• The temperature of -40 degrees celsius to -60 degrees celsius can be seen in the upper layers of the Antarctic region.

• If the temperature reaches up to the pressure melting point, it can lead to glacier erosion.

Vegetation and Wildlife

These regions do have harsh conditions but still provide some favourable conditions for various species.

• Animals found here such as bear, snow leopard, wolverine, etc.

• Vegetation like algae, fungus, lichens, mosses, mushrooms, liverworts, etc.

• Tundra and alpine vegetation are found in temperate regions.

Benefits

• They are a great source of fresh water in the form of glacier lake and glacier streams.

• They are useful for the production of hydroelectric power.

• Glacier peak or mount glacier also serve as tourist attractions and a source of great revenue for the state.

• They maintain the ecological balance of the planet.

• They maintain global temperature.

Did You Know?

• If the entire glaciers or ice sheets of Antarctica melts then the sea level will almost rise by 65m which means London will be submerged underwater along with several other similar places.

• Antarctica and Greenland combined hold more than 99% of the glaciers of the Earth.

• Glaciers move very slowly. The Kutiah glacier of Pakistan has moved about more than 12km in only 3 months and it is the fastest glacier surge ever recorded.

• Lambert – Fisher Glacier present in Antarctica is one of the largest glaciers in the world.

• Fox glacier which is present in Newzealand is one of the most accessible glaciers and also the most attractive tourist destination with 1000 tourists daily visits.

Conclusion:

Thus, in this article, we have covered one important landform i.e. glacier. We have learned the meaning and definition of glaciers, their various types along with their distribution around the world. We have seen its various benefits and have learned what will happen to Earth if glaciers melt. These are dense and huge mass of ice sheets that move very slowly and are a great source of freshwater and maintains the global temperature of the planet. These notes will help the students of Class 8 as well as the students of higher classes. 

We have read about the glacier and its related concepts. Let us have a look at the FAQs.

Horst Meaning- A horst is a raised fault block bounded by natural faults in physical geography and geology. A horst is a raised block of the Earth’s crust that has lifted or stayed stationary while the land around it (graben) has sunk.

Horst and Graben are found together in an extensional environment. The graben is the block that has been downthrown, while the horst is the block that has been upthrown next to the graben.

What is the Meaning of Horst?

Horst meaning: Horst is a Dutch and German word that means heap and is similar to the English word “Hurst.”

What is the Meaning of Graben?

A graben is a fault block that has been lowered relative to the blocks on each side without significant interference or tilting. Bordering faults, or fault zones, are usually of near-parallel strike and steeply dipping, with nearly equal vertical displacement. The relative movement of the blocks that define a graben Both of the blocks may have rotated according to their initial positions, but the middle block may have subsided further than the outer two. As a result, a true graben in its original surface shape is a linear structural depression. The scale of grabens varies widely, but the superiority of a long fault trough is a distinguishing feature.

Geomorphology of Horst

The cross-sections of horsts may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. The horst is likely to be symmetrical and approximately flat on top of the usual faults on either side have identical geometry and are moving at the same rate. The top of the horst would most likely be inclined and the entire profile would be asymmetrical if the faults on each side have different rates of vertical motion. In cross-section, erosion has a big influence on how symmetrical a horst looks.

Horst and Graben Formation

Horst and graben are formed when opposite-dip natural faults with parallel strike lines occur in pairs. They are inextricably linked. Horsts and grabens may be as small as a few centimetres wide or as large as tens of kilometres wide, with vertical movement of several thousand feet. They’re bordered on both sides by steeply dipping regular faults, which have virtually equivalent movement, resulting in blocks that are barely tilted. The faults that form horsts tend to dip away from each other, while those that form grabens tend to dip against each other. Two or more horsts and grabens can be found close together.

They’re thought to be caused by lateral stress, which could be caused by regional uplift or salt dome formation; they’re most common on dome crests or anticlines.

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Horsts

The vast majority of discovered hydrocarbons in many rift basins around the world are located in traditional traps associated with horsts.  Most of the petroleum discovered in Libya’s Sirte Basin (tens of billions of barrels of reserves) is located on large horst blocks like the Zelten Platform and the Dahra Platform, as well as smaller horsts like the Giallo High and the Bu-Attifel Ridge.

Examples of Horst and Graben Formation

Wallonia’s Condroz and Ardennes regions are strong examples of horst and graben succession.

The Satpura Range is a horst in India, flanked to the north by the Narmada Graben and to the south by the much smaller but parallel Tapi Graben.

The Vosges Mountains in France and the Black Forest in Germany are examples of horsts, as are the Table, Jura, Dole Mountains, and the Rila – Rhodope Massif, which includes the well-defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst), and Pirin mountain (a horst forming a large anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.

Indian Monsoon is one of the most prominent monsoon systems around the world. It is depicted from the variation and amount of India’s annual rainfall. Its effects are felt by India, the Indian subcontinent and the neighbouring water bodies of the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. During the cold months, the direction of the monsoon is from the north-east, known as the north east monsoon in India, while during the time of warmest months of the year the monsoon wind blows from the southwest hence known as the south west monsoon in India. This entire process leads to rainfall in India received during June and July. 

The Beginning and Development of the Indian Monsoon.

Rainfall in India begins with the westerly winds that frequently occur throughout the year almost constantly, around the area near India at the Equator. On the other hand, the surface easterlies reach the latitudes near 20° N in February with a strong northerly component. Moving forward they retire north-side with serious changes in the upper-air circulation. During this time one season of monsoon ends and the next one begins. 

The high-sun season comes in late March when it reaches the Equator as the wind further moves north. This move takes with it the atmospheric instability, rising and turbulent clouds and rain. Across northern India, the subtropical jet stream towards the west controls the air-flow with the surface winds flowing from the north-east. After March, during April, the high-sun moves northward. This is the time when the summer season is ongoing in the Northern hemisphere. This is also summer time in India and as gradually time progresses the country becomes prone to heating as the cool winds from the north (the central lands in the Asian continent) are obstructed by the Himalayan mountain ranges and other highlands. The three areas around which there is a relative increase in temperature of the troposphere are the southern Bay of Bengal, Plateau of Tibet, and the trunks of various other dry peninsular regions. All together form a very wide and large heat-source region. In the area over the southern Bay of Bengal, the atmospheric pressure is in-between 500-100 millibar pressure level because of the release of condensation heat from the cumulonimbus clouds along the intercontinental convergence zone. Opposite of this condition a heat sink is created over the southern Indian ocean as the cloud-free air cools down any radiation emitted from the surface. Because of the difference between the heat regions, the monsoon winds flow from the heat sink to the heat source. After April, the southwest monsoon gets well-established in May above Sri-Lanka.

In May, the drier surface of Tibet absorbs the heat from the radiation of sun-rays and it is transmitted to the air into the troposphere above it. Following this, an anticyclonic cell rises at 6000 feet above the surface which in turn causes a strong east wind flowing in the troposphere over north India. There is a sudden change of the subtropical jet stream of its course to the northern side of the anticyclonic ridge plus the highlands with brief intervals of southward wind flow. There is a change in the upper-tropospheric circulation above the northern region of India from the jet stream being westerly to easterly coinciding with the turnaround of the vertical temperature and pressure gradients with the range in-between 600-300 millibars. The inverted triangular peninsular region of India gets heated as the sun progresses towards the north. The accelerating heat in combination with the heat being transported by the winds provides the base for the initial monsoonal activity above the Arabian Sea. When the relative humidity of the coastal districts of India rises above 70% which leads to some rain. Although the air was within 1500 meters above the heated land it was kept down by the east wind. This is the period of late May when there are also thunderstorms in the area, even though the rainfall hasn’t started yet.

The Period of High Rainfall in India

The jet stream of the east with 150-100 millibars pressure reaches the highest speed to the southern side of an anticyclonic ridge with a deviation of 15° N from China through India. This position of the jet stream controls the situation of the monsoonal rains. An unstable and strong southwestern surface flow provides 80% of the humidity which is the major burst of the monsoon bringing the south-west monsoon. Even though the atmospheric pattern moves equally over the subcontinent, the amount of rainfall in India varies from place to place and year to year. 

When the early monsoon wind gets accumulated against the Western Ghats, it leads to most of the group of clouds providing major rainfall in the entire region beginning of summer monsoon in India. As the clouds are pushed against the hills some of the inland air absorbs some of the water. The complex pattern of rainfall in India is distributed variable from the region because of various factors such as topography. The oceanic air flowing below 6000 metres is deflected because of the Coriolis effect. The oncoming air stream gets unstable due to fast convection above the hot land. Because of the thunderstorms and release of the latent heat from the towering clouds, the upper-tropospheric warm air travels northwest from ocean to land. But the main component of air above the 9000 metres altitude is a strong eastward flow. 

The monsoon gets well-established in the later part of June-July around the 6000 metres altitude. Moist, cloudy and warm weather is spread all over India bringing varying degrees of rainfall in India due to topographical differences. There are huge differences in the average rainfall of India. Examples include 1300 metres of rainfall in Khasi Hills, an average of 2500 metres in Cherapunji, etc. In the months of July-August, low-pressure waves occur in the monsoonal air which is now travelling from east to west. The easterly jet streams provide bursts of speed strengthening the low-level monsoon airflow. This causes an increase in the rainfall and wider distribution than June. 

When the east wind moves north over the southern Himalayas heavy downpour occurs in those regions leaving the central and south region dry. If the wind blows along the south face of the Himalayas it brings dry weather in the north. On the other hand, the southwest monsoon air flowing over the Indus plain cannot hold moisture and hence the area beyond remains dry creating a new heat source. 

Retreating Indian Monsoon

As August proceeds the intensity and duration of the sunshine decrease causing the temperature to fall and this results in the decrease in India raining due to the south-west monsoon, starting at the end of the monsoon in north India. In September the dry air from the North circulates in the west of the highlands and above northwestern India. By October there are variable winds all over India covered with northern air. As the surface flow turns to the northeast it causes the winter monsoon in India or the northeast monsoon in October – December in the south and southeastern parts. With the retreat of the moist winds, the monsoon time in India comes to an end.

With most of India now in the sunny, dry, and dusty season, such weather spreads through Punjab in November, Central India, Bengal and Assam in December, Deccan in January and south Deccan in February. Following this, the cycle starts all over again.

The Indian meteorological department is the body responsible for weather forecasting and monitoring and predicts the monsoon periods. It collects data from different weather patterns across the world for more accuracy. For example, for the forecast of early June, a positive correlation of the South American pressure and Indian upper-wind data is accounted for in April. Other such agencies include Skymet India which is a private agency of weather forecasting and rainfall in India prediction.

Conclusion

Thus, Indian monsoon patterns are very complex and as it can be inferred from the article a contribution of many factors making a geographical convergence of moist wind belts to bring rain to the country. Although rainfall in India is continuous from June to December due to different types of monsoon in India, June – September/October are considered to be the major rainy months in India. The Indian meteorological department of the Government of India is the major agency that tries its best to follow, and understand the dynamics of wind patterns and predicts the forecast through a meticulous examination of various factors.