Category: Geography Notes PPT

The microclimate or miniature climate is the local or small-scale environmental conditions that influence plant growth and development, such as evapotranspiration and wind. This term is often used as an equivalent for a macroclimate, the seasonal or large-scale climate. As a result of the plant effect, we can observe different types of microclimates. 

A microclimate is more localized than the weather or local climate and is therefore generally much easier to understand and predict. Weather conditions, on the other hand, have a larger projection and, as a result, are more difficult to predict.

Factors that influence Microclimate

The microclimate is affected by the weather, and the weather is affected by the wind, temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, and atmospheric pressure. There is a clear relationship between wind and temperature: the temperature is cooler in an area with light wind and warmer in an area with heavier wind. 

This concept of microclimate is very important, as it plays an important role in the growth of plants. In a greenhouse, there are two types of microclimates:

• A sheltered microclimate is present in the greenhouse. This microclimate results from the greenhouse itself, which may protect the plant from the sun. 

• A natural microclimate is that which is present outdoors. The temperature of the soil is affected by the amount of shade cast by the surrounding vegetation and by the presence or absence of water. Air movement caused by the wind may also be important. This can also contribute to increased humidity. Plant growth is related to microclimates that support high levels of light and heat.

Microclimates play a critical role in how people experience various climate zones in different seasons.

There are a lot of factors that determine what a microclimate is and in fact, the term.

“microclimate” itself is a misnomer because there are really many different climate zones and microclimates, which can vary greatly.

But to get to the point, what is the temperature of the microclimate?

This is a critical aspect of climate zones because as the microclimate temperature approaches the dew point, the temperature of the airdrops and dew forms at the same time, the winds start to be warmer and that means the air is starting to be loaded with water vapor.

What you are seeing is the combination of temperature and humidity dropping and the air becoming heavy with water vapor, which explains why the air becomes heavy and becomes more prone to precipitation. This occurs most visibly in fog, but it also occurs in clouds, and when the air gets heavy with water vapor, it is able to produce precipitation.

A microclimate is a small region, such as a square meter or a meter-cube, that has its own environmental conditions, with its own conditions of heat and cold, light, and humidity.

For example, many of the plants in a small garden can have their own unique microclimates with particular conditions such as soil moisture, air humidity, and wind direction. A specific plant can be placed in a certain place in order to obtain the desired microclimate. For example, a potted plant can be kept in a location that is shaded most of the day. In a greenhouse, the microclimate can be used to regulate the relative humidity, temperature, and airflow.

In some of the literature, the microclimate is also called a site environment or a local environmental condition.

Causes

In a microclimate, the sun is closer to the ground (more direct sunlight) than it is to an observer, usually resulting in lower temperatures for that observer. This situation can be created by different types of vegetation. For example, tall trees shade smaller plants. However, in dense forests, the canopy shade is a secondary factor as the foliage is too dense to permit sunlight to reach the ground.

For a greenhouse or other structure that receives direct sunlight throughout the day, the effect of canopy shading is more important.

The intensity of direct sunlight in a given microclimate is a function of a number of factors: 

• The difference in elevation between the microclimate and an observer

• The tilt of the solar path relative to the surface

• The angle of the solar surface is relative to the vertical. In an example, the direct sunlight of noon is 10 percent of that of noon. This factor may be used to estimate the solar exposure of a microclimate.

Some types of plants, such as vines and deciduous trees, reduce the temperature of their leaves by evapotranspiration. Leaves are evaporative surfaces, and evaporative cooling reduces the temperature of the leaves. However, in the case of most vines, their water-conserving behavior is a function of soil moisture, while evaporative cooling occurs when soil moisture is greater than the plants’ root zone capacity. The water-conserving behavior is a function of soil moisture that allows the plants to maximize the quantity of water that is available to the plant. Evaporative cooling is a function of both leaf and soil moisture.

Light intensity is also an important factor. A shade tree can be planted in a sunnier location to provide shade for the rest of the garden. A structure can be built to collect the light and redirect it. The building can be located on a different day from the light that reaches the ground, or it can be located at a different time of day.

The wind pattern affects the shape and distribution of a greenhouse, and it affects the distribution of light and air humidity. The effect of wind on the air inside a greenhouse is often called a wind shadow. Many different forms of wind, such as the wind gusts, the wind direction, and the wind speed, are significant factors in the design of a greenhouse. The microclimate is sometimes used synonymously with the microclimate of a plant.

Uses

A microclimate can be used for the following:

• Plant phenology: the observation of growth, flowering, fruiting, and the death of a plant

• Water balance: the calculation of the evaporation and transpiration of water from plants

• Climatic studies: the comparison of a microclimate with the seasonal climate of a region

• Plant selection: the placement of plants that have specific needs for microclimate

• Design: the specification of a structure in terms of space usage

• Air quality and air pollution: the reduction of harmful gasses, like carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide

The microclimate is the aggregate of environment variables, including temperature, humidity, radiations, and to which plant is exposed. It is the climate near the Earth’s surface and it is distinct from the local climate or weather projection microclimate because of the earth effects and, most importantly, the presence of vegetation.

Microclimates occur, for example near the water bodies, which may cool the atmosphere, or in heavily urban areas where brick, concrete and asphalt absorb the sun’s energy, heat up and radiate that heat to the ambient air then the resulting urban heat island is a kind of microclimate.

The term “microclimate” is first introduced in publications such as “Climates in Miniature”: A Study of Microclimate Environment (Thomas Bedford, Franklin).

Microclimatology

The term microclimatology is defined as the scientific investigation of microclimate, and it’s concerned with the atmospheric layer that extends from the Earth surface to a height where the consequences of the features of the supporting surface can no longer be differentiated from the local climate (American Meteorological, 2000).

Urban Microclimate

Urban microclimate can be defined as the local climate observed in the urban areas, which differs from the climate of the surrounding rural areas. Several factors are responsible for creating an unhealthy urban microclimate.

Human-generated heat is the biggest factor and much of it is caused by internal combustion by car engines that use fossil fuels. Cars also cause pollution and moisture to the air. All the heat- retaining covered surface required for cars makes the climate more unhealthy. Other factors that are responsible for creating unhealthy urban microclimates are poor building constructions and designs, inferior insulating materials, and inefficient building management practices. 

Microclimate Parameters

Two microclimate parameters that define microclimate within a certain area are temperature and humidity. 

Macro and Micro Climate

A microclimate is defined as the variations in localized climate around a building, whereas a microclimate is the climate of larger areas such as a region or country. The macro and microclimate have a crucial effect on both the energy and atmospheric performance of buildings during the summer season.

The construction site affects exposure to the prevailing wind, the solar radiation the building receives, pollution level, temperature and rain penetration.

Factors Affecting Microclimate And Microclimate

The factors that adversely affect macroclimate and microclimate are discussed below.

Macroclimate is Affected By the following factors:

A microclimate is Affected by the following factors:

Outsiders Designer Control

• Area and local climate

• Site surrounding

• Site shape

• Topography features

• Surrounding Buildings

Within Designer’s Remit

• Location of open areas

• Spacing and orientation of buildings

• Form and height of a building

• Fenestration

• Tree covers

• Windbreak

• Ground Profiling

• Surrounding Surface (paving grass etc.)

 

Climate and Microclimate

Weather is defined as the atmospheric condition at a certain point in time or a short period of time. It is characterized by distinct methodological events such as air velocity, temperature, air pressure, and their interactions. On the other hand, climate can be defined as the average state of the atmosphere and related characteristics of the underlying water or land in a particular region for a long duration. The term microclimate can be used to describe an indoor climate, i.e., the condition of the area in a certain closed space. 

Difference between the Climate and Microclimate

The difference between climate and microclimate is that the climate is an area of the Earth’s surface between two parallels of latitude, whereas microclimate is a small, local region retaining a unique pattern of weather or weather effects that differs from the local climate. 

Did You Know?

• North California above the Bay Area is renowned for microclimate with significant temperature differences.

• San Francisco is a city with microclimate and sub microclimates.

• The Chesapeake Bay is also known for its subtropical climates.

• The wind microclimate around buildings is the result of the layout of the building.

• A microclimate is advantageous for gardeners who carefully choose and position their plants.

• Tall buildings in urban areas create their own microclimate both by overshadowing larger areas and by channelizing strong wind to ground level.

• Halixa, Nova Scotia has varied microclimates.

We usually use references of some hemispheres to define the location of the country or we use the name of the continent it is part of. If we talk about India, it is present in the Northern-Eastern Hemisphere of the globe. In this article, we will discuss the two latitudinal divisions of the Earth i.e Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. We will talk about what is the meaning of the northern and southern hemispheres and their distinctive features and will learn the difference between the two at the end. This article will help you to understand the major divisions of the Earth that will be useful in your studies.

 

Hemisphere:

It basically refers to the half divisions of anybody. We can divide the Earth into various such equal divisions. These divisions can be longitudinal or latitudinal. On the basis of an imaginary line of the equator, it can be the northern or southern hemisphere and on the basis of the prime meridian, it can be the eastern or western hemisphere. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere are basically hemispheres of the Earth on a latitudinal basis. Let’s study these two important hemispheres deeply:

 

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Northern Hemisphere

Let’s have a look at all the aspects of the Northern Hemisphere.

Northern Hemisphere Definition & Meaning:

The part of the Earth above the imaginary line i.e. the equator is called the Northern hemisphere. Everything above this 0° line is part of this Hemisphere. It is half part of the Earth which consists of more land than water and has the largest population of the Earth.

 

Features

Various features that describe this Hemisphere are mentioned below:

Topography:

It has a wide variety of topography and climatic features. This hemisphere has more land as compared to the southern part and this availability of land plays a great role in its Geography. The availability of such huge land along with water bodies plays a great impact on weather and climate patterns. The land in this hemisphere consists of,

• Whole Europe

• Whole North America

• The entire continent of Asia

• A small portion of South America

• ⅔ part of the African continent

• Very Small parts of the continent Australia and islands in New Guinea.

The lithosphere of this hemisphere consists of different types of topography. Mountains, plateaus, hills, valleys, rivers and lakes, plains, islands, etc. all kinds of topography and landforms can be found here.

 

Climate:

The climate varies with respect to the location. This hemisphere has both tropical and temperate climates. Tropic of cancer and arctic circle both are both of this hemisphere which provides different climate zones to this hemisphere. The regions between the tropic of cancer and equator experience hot temperature i.e between 0° to 23.5°N. The regions between 23.5°N to 66.5°N are the regions that are influenced by both the tropics and the poles. In the northern temperate zones, the temperature is relatively cold with different seasons. The Mediterranean type of climate and British type of climate are also distinctive features of the climate of this hemisphere.

 

Seasons:

Different seasons are there in this hemisphere.

• In June, it experiences the summer solstice.

• In September, it experiences the autumnal equinox. This is the time of the autumn season.

• In December, it experiences the winter season.

• And in March, it experiences the vernal equinox. This is the time of spring season in this hemisphere.

Coriolis Force:

It is one of the most important components of the physical Geography of the northern hemisphere. This is a special effect because of which various objects deflect in a specific direction. In the northern hemisphere, the objects move in the right direction or can stay in the clockwise direction. This affects the movement of the water, or atmospheric air or winds, etc which leads to a huge effect on the regular weather and climatic conditions. 

 

Northern Hemisphere Population:

The northern hemisphere continent has a large area of land and thus there are a number of countries and places for the people to live. The majority of the population of the Earth lives in this hemisphere and it has all large or small cities of the world. Similarly, the majority of the population of various varieties of vegetation and wildlife is also present in this hemisphere.

 

Southern Hemisphere

Let’s have a look at all the aspects of the southern hemisphere.

Southern Hemisphere Definition or Meaning:

The part of the earth below the imaginary line of the equator is called the southern hemisphere. Everything that lies under it is part of the southern hemisphere. It consists of around 81% of water (which is more than the Northern Hemisphere) and 32% of the land (which is less than the Northern Hemisphere).

 

Features

The various features of the southern hemisphere are mentioned below:

Topography:

Similar to the Northern hemisphere, there is also a wide variety of topography in the southern hemisphere. As we can see on the map as well, if we compare both hemispheres, this hemisphere has less lithosphere and has more water. It is also considered a bit larger than the northern one. The water bodies present here are the Indian Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, and the South Pacific ocean. Southern hemisphere continents and the land here consists of;

Climate:

It has more water than land and water takes more time to warm as well as to cool down and thus it has a milder climate than the upper hemisphere. Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic circle are part of this hemisphere and they have a great influence on the temperature and climatic conditions of this Hemisphere. 0° to 23.5°S are torrid zones which are influenced by both equator and Tropic of Capricorn whereas 23.5°S to 66.5°S serves the South Temperate zone which mostly consists of water and beyond 66.5°S is the South Frigid zone that covers 4.12% of the area of the Earth.

 

Seasons:

Similar to the Northern hemisphere, there are also different types of seasons during the year here in this hemisphere as well. The seasons are not similar but exactly opposite to the northern hemisphere. These are mentioned below:

• In the month of June, it experiences the winter solstice when there is the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere.

• In the month of September, it experiences the spring season or we can say vernal equinox when there is an autumnal equinox above.

• In the month of December, it experiences the summer season or summer solstice when there are winters above.

• In the month of March, it experiences the autumn season, or can say the autumnal equinox when there is spring season above.

Coriolis Force:

It is one of the most important components of the physical Geography of the southern hemisphere as well. This is a special force because of which various objects deflect in a specific direction. In the southern hemisphere, the objects move in the left direction or can stay in the anti-clockwise direction. It can change the directions of the trade winds which move from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere or vice versa. This affects the movement of the water, or atmospheric air or winds, etc which leads to a huge effect on the regular weather and climatic conditions.

 

Population:

As this is already clear that it has less land as compared to the above hemisphere thus, less population is there. It has around 32.7% of the land of the Earth and only 10 to 12% of the population of the Earth lives here.

 

The difference between the two hemispheres is mentioned in the table:

Difference Between Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere

 

More About the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere

The above text was flooded with information. It gave you the idea of the southern and northern hemispheres, their features and also its difference. It was very informative and also the conclusion was very short and useful. 

Geography is a part of Social Science that includes lots of learning. You need to learn and revise a lot while you are preparing for this subject. The best way to remember things is to keep saying them aloud or narrate them to someone. 

The below-mentioned tricks will help you get better grades and also will prove to be the best for you.

Hence, students shall try adding them to their schedules and with that, it is also important to understand that no single strategy would work for everyone but to succeed, it is important to observe, select and do what’s best for you. 

Stop multitasking. Your brain gets tired soon and you may need more frequent breaks. Don’t let your brain get tired so easily. For example, if you are doing Math, you should not start with physics or any other subject simultaneously, keep your focus on 1 subject and then start with another one. 

Whatever device you are using for your studies, should be completely distraction-free. It should not have any social media or any games. It should be used for study purposes only. You may use some other device while resting or during your breaks. You should not be missing any breaks, make them relax and start again because it is also important to allow your mind to calm. All you need to take care of is the devices that you use. 

If you are not able to concentrate and are experiencing running thoughts, you should take a paper and write down about everything that you are thinking and then start with your studies. It will help you focus better on your preparation. Keep your mind clear and calm during the study time because, with unnecessary stress and anxiety, you won’t get results. This trick is also very useful in exam time as it helps you gain focus and realign concentration. 

A hydrated body always helps your concentration to improve. If you are not in the habit of drinking water, do it right away, start your day with a glass of water and keep your bottle on your study table throughout the day, you will automatically be reminded of it, keep sipping water and for sure you will have more energy. 

Self-testing is testing your knowledge about a particular topic through quizzes or sample questions. Cheating in self-testing is like cheating your own self which is wrong. The self-test should feel hard, you should come to the level of retest, it should be honest as this will only give you a true picture about your clarity for that particular concept. 

Stop whenever you feel like it, stop guilt-free at any time whenever your body is tired. Listen to your body, don’t stretch your capacities. If you are feeling exhausted, close your books and take a power nap. Fix a time at night which should not be stretched, don’t let your sleep compromise. Just keep your mind and body happy and they will give you more power to study and ace your studies. 

If you are not able to go according to your schedule and not able to achieve the goals then you need to understand that the goals set are too high and unrealistic. These goals cannot be achieved at the moment but will be achievable soon with practice which will increase your speed. Like if you are aiming to study for about 8 hours a day then for now you should aim for 5 hours. Don’t stretch yourself too much, just keep increasing it slowly. 

Conclusion

Thus, in this article, we have covered everything required and necessary about the two hemispheres of the Earth ie. The Northern hemisphere and Southern hemisphere. We have studied their various features such as their topography, land or ocean composition, population, the occurrence of seasons, temperature and climatic conditions, the effect of Coriolis force, etc. All these things clearly define and demarcate the difference between the two as well. This article will not only increase your basic knowledge about the Earth and its divisions but also will help in your academic journey.

 

We have read in detail what is the northern hemisphere and what is the southern hemisphere and their related features comprehensively. Let’s practice some of the related FAQs:

Outwash plains are wide, tenderly sloping sheets of glacial sediments deposited by meltwater outwash at the snout of the glaciers. As it flows, glaciers crush the underlying rock surface and carry the scrap along with it. The sediments are accumulated at the terminal of the glaciers over the outwash plain by the meltwater, with large stones accumulated near the terminal moraine, and finest particles are carried further. 

Outwash plains are commonly found in Iceland where geothermal activity speeds up the melting of ice flow and deposition of sediments carried by melting water. The other name outwash plains are sandur (plural: sabdurs), sandar, and sandr.

What is Outwash Plain?

An outwash plain is both an erosional and depositional surface formed by meltwater coming from the glaciers. These plains are generally identified by braided streams and found in the front of the glaciers. The streams are generally small and braided because the size of the sediment varies and the original stream gets split up. As the streams meander around, the erosion takes place left to right rather than up and down. These glaciers are generally formed beyond the terminal moraine deposited by the glaciers.

Define Outwash Plain 

A wide, tenderly sloping sheet of outwash accumulated by meltwater streams flowing in front of or beyond a glacier, and formed by coalescing outwash fans is defined as an outwash plain.

Outwash Plains Formation

A fluvioglacial landform formed by both deposition and erosion by meltwater is a glacial outwash plain or sandur that generally has braided streams. Glaciers and icecaps contain large quantities of sediments and slits, that are picked up as they erode by the meltwater that carries the sediments away from the glaciers and deposit them on a broad plain. The materials in the outwash plain are size-sorted by the surface water of the melting glacier, with small particles like a slit, being the most distantly re-deposited, whereas the largest sediments are re-deposited to the original terminus of the glaciers. 

Outwash Plains Occurrence

The Kerguelen Islands, Svalbard, and Iceland are the islands where the outward plains are found. Outwash plains are also most commonly found where geothermal activities below the ice caps accelerate the deposits of the sediments by meltwater. 

Glacial Outwash 

The considerable amount of water that flowed from melting ice deposited different kinds of materials, the most important of which are glacial outwash. Glacial outwash plains made up of outwash deposits are flat and consist of layers of sand and other fine sediments. The plains at the bottom of the glacial mountains or the reserve of continental ice sheets are covered with glacial-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which combine to form an outwash plain of sand, silt, and clay.  

The thickness of the outwash can reach 100 m (328 feet) at the end of the glacier, although the thickness is usually much less, it may extend many kilometres in length. Outwash plain may be extended for miles beyond the margin of the glaciers. 

Outwash sediments from the Wisconsin Glacial episode can be tracked down to the mouth of the Mississippi River, 1120 km (700 miles) from the nearest terminus of the glacial.

Did You Know?

• An outwash, also known as sandur, is a plain formed by melting glaciers.

• Outwash plain on the map is found in the southeast quarter.

• The largest outwash plain in the world covering an area of 1300 km is Skeiðarársandur.

• Outwash plains are commonly found in Iceland where geothermal activity speeds up the melting of ice flow and deposition of sediments by meltwater.

• A terminal moraine, also known as end moraine is a type of moraine that is formed at the edge of the glacier, making its maximum advance.

In the simplest terms, a planetarium can be defined as a theatre that is focused on the entertainment and popular education of astronomy and other related fields. Usually, it can be viewed as a hemispheric domed ceiling that is normally used as a screen on which the images of planets, stars, and several other celestial objects can be projected.

The term planetarium can also be used to refer to the institutions in which a theatre is primarily used for teaching. A specialized projector is also involved in this task. There are also several experts who refer to computer software and internet sites as planetariums. These sites and software must be able to simulate a view of the night sky or some celestial phenomena.

Types of Planetarium

One should remember that when it comes to permanent planetarium installations, then there are a lot of variances that exist in this domain. This means that planetariums that coexist with large supporting institutions often have an extensive exhibit space dedicated to museum collections. These types of planetariums also employ a lot of people in their professional and support staff.

Usually, the projection theatre of those kinds of planetariums can be 82 feet or 25 meters in diameter. The capacities of these planetariums can exceed over 600 people. On the other hand, when it comes to local college or community planetariums, those spaces are only able to accommodate small groups of people.

There is also a separate class of portable planetariums that consist of inflatable domes and lightweight projectors. The domes and projectors can be set up at school to hold several students at the same time.

It should also be noted that a projection instrument is vital for every great planetarium. That being said, the first modern electromechanical planetarium projector was built by Carl Zeiss, which was a German optical firm, in 1923. This projector was used in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.

The current versions of this instrument are more technically complex, controlled by computer combinations, uses motor drives, fibre optics, lenses, lamps, and other devices that help in designing the place of the planets, the sun, and the moon in their correct locations. Some devices also help in allocating the position of thousands of stars for hundreds and thousands of years.

There are also other instruments that can add several details like the Milky Way, horizon scenes, comets, nebulae, meteors, reference lines, and scales. These features can be used for celestial navigation and descriptive astronomy.

Institutional Planetariums

These days planetariums that are based out of institutions are replacing and complementing electromechanical projectors with other technologies. This includes all-digital projector systems that are equipped with fish-eye lenses. These planetariums also come with laser projection systems that can scan the image on the screen by using colour-controlled laser beams.

A seamless blending of images of the sky, artwork, videos, photos, and animations generated by the computer can also be accomplished by using digital and laser systems. These devices can also stimulate accurate views from any particular perspective in space. It also takes viewers on a virtual flight that goes beyond the solar system and into interstellar and intergalactic space.

There are other variations of the screen configurations and seating arrangements that are quite common. These configurations can range from the traditional horizontal domed screen to concentric seating that is located around a central projector for distorted or tilted domes. This is also present in auditorium seating and wraparound screens.

What are Sky Shows?

Sky shows are basically planetarium theatre programs that are offered to the general public. These programs are held on a regular schedule. The shows also have themes that are focused on space topics or other astronomical themes, including the cosmologies of ancient cultures, the future of life on Earth, and the extinction of dinosaurs.

There is also an aim to achieve total computer automation of these programs that should combine cued music, visual display, pre-recorded narration, and other sound effects. There are also large planetariums that use technologically advanced multimedia installations. These installations are usually supplemented with science programs that feature pure entertainment content along with spreading information.

History of Planetariums

It should be noted that the term ‘planetarium’ was originally used to describe a kind of mechanical model. The purpose of this model was to portray the motions of the orbits of the planets and their moons. These models were made for the purpose of exhibition and teaching.

The models were also mounted on wire rods for support and geared at a central pedestal. Stellarium is also an open-sourced free software planetarium. One can download the Stellarium application to experience the world of astrophysics in sharper colours!

Several models also consisted of moons that were known at the time of the construction. These are also known as orreries, after one of the English sponsors of a mini planetarium that was built in 1712. Orreries can be quite accurate and elaborate. The Deutsches Museum planetarium was unveiled to the public in 1923. It features the Zeiss projector and was officially opened two years after the opening of the museum. Many visitors described the planetarium as a schoolroom that is located under the domains of heaven.

The special educational sky shows are held in the planetarium for school children. This is a vital part of the program in most installations. There are also astronomy museum lessons given to college and university classes. The facilities can also be used for other lectures or courses given under adult continuing education programs.

The Planetariums in the World

There are several famous and astonishing planetariums located all across the globe. 

Nagoya City Science Museum Planetarium

The Nagoya City Science Museum Planetarium is located in Nagoya City in Japan. This is the largest planetarium in the world as it hosts a huge metal dome that has a diameter of 35 meters. It also houses around 350 seats under a single massive dome screen.

In the largest planetarium, viewers can sit back and recline in those seats to look at the thousands of stars that mirror the night sky. One can also watch several exciting celestial events like meteor showers and eclipses on that screen. The high-quality sound system also adds to the experience and makes one believe that he or she is travelling through space.

L’Hemisferic

The L’Hemisferic planetarium is located in Valencia, Spain. In this planetarium museum, viewers can view the incredible beauty of the night sky. Originally, the planetarium was designed to function as a centrepiece of the City of Arts and Science that is a centre for science and culture. The complex was also supposed to have an aquarium and a landscaped garden.

There is right now a reminiscent of a giant eye, the building has a transparent eyelid that closes and opens over the concrete eyeball, which is located in the centre. There is also a pool of water that surrounds this entire feature.

There is an excellent IMAX theatre located inside the eyeball of this planetarium museum. And the planetarium is also known as the ‘eye of knowledge.’ Viewers can enjoy watching a 3D display that would transport them into the depths of space on a 900 meters concave screen.

Adler Planetarium

The Adler Planetarium is located in Chicago, United States of America. It is present right on the water of Lake Michigan. It has an excellent view of the Chicago skyline. The Adler Planetarium was the first planetarium that was built in the western hemisphere.

Currently, this planetarium is home to three different theatres, including the Definiti Theater, the Samuel C. Johnson Family Star Theater, which had HD and 3D equipment, and the Grainger Sky Theater, which is the biggest and most technologically advanced theatre.

Apart from all this, the theatres are also equipped with the latest sound systems and projectors that enhance the experiences of the visitors. One can also view various special exhibits and engage his or her mind in the observatory.

There is also a Gates Planetarium that is located in Denver, Colorado, United States of America.

Fun Facts about the Indira Gandhi Planetarium in Lucknow, India

Did you know that there is a renowned planetarium located in Lucknow, India? This is true and that planetarium is known as the Indira Gandhi Planetarium. This planetarium has the iconic shape of Saturn and is complete with five rings and 21 meters diameter for the spherical theatre space!

The entire building rests on a raised platform. It is also surrounded by several beautiful fountains. The guests have the option of visiting a space gallery inside the planetarium. The space gallery is filled with all sorts of information about Indian satellites. It is located on the ground floor.

The main auditorium of the planetarium also has a diameter of 15 meters. This is where the guests can watch several video projects on different topics, including the Chandrayaan mission to the moon. Most of the shows are presented in Hindi. But guests can also catch some shows in English.

Quicksand is such a state where the saturated sand loses the capacity to support eventually acquiring the character of a liquid. Quicksand is found at the mouths of large rivers or along the flat streams or beaches where the pools of water are partly filled with sand with an underlying layer of clay or any kind of dense material that prevents drainage. Quick Sand is a mixture of sand, mud, and vegetation. 

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We will further know about this typical sand situation, the condition of quicksand, its occurrence, and other amazing facts about this sand. 

Quicksand Condition

Quicksand condition is for the floatation of particles of the cohesion less soil, like the fine gravel and the sand particles, this is due to the vertical upward seepage flow. Here the sand boiling occurs, and the bearing capacity and the shear strength of this type of soil decreases, and the agitations of the soil particles are then apparent.

Quicksand condition is actually not a type of soil rather this is a flow condition of the soil that occurs in cohesion less soils. In this situation, the boiling occurs when the excavations are made which is below the water table and at this time the water is pumped out from the excavation pit to keep the area around there free from water.

How Quicksand Condition Occurs?

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Quicksand condition occurs when there is a seepage pressure, this acts in the upward direction, while overcoming the downward direction pressure, this is due to the submerged weight of the soil, and here the sand grains are forced out apart. This results in the formation of quicksand which cannot support a load on this sand.

When the critical gradient exceeds, the soil here moves upward gradually, and then the soil surface appears to be boiling. This quick condition in the sand is also known as the boiling condition. At this stage, a violent and visible agitation of these particles occurs. The discharge then suddenly increases for the increase in the coefficient of the permeability that occurred in the process. If there is a weight being placed on the surface of the soil, it eventually sinks. The soil for this phenomenon behaves like a liquid that has no shear strength.

Quicksand fails to support the weight of a man or an animal and thus it behaves like a liquid that has a unit weight that is about twice that of the water. A person can easily float in this with about one-third of his body out of the quicksand. However, the quicksand is very viscous and movement in this would require a high amount of energy. A person might end up dying by drowning, getting suffocated if he gets tired and then let his head fall into this quicksand in a fit of panic.

This is to be kept in mind, if a person is caught in this kind of quicksand conditions, he should keep his head high above the soil surface and then move slowly towards the bank. The person should try to catch some tree on the bank and then try to pull himself out of it. 

Quicksand Condition at Construction Site

The construction sites are very much susceptible to the quicksand type conditions:

1. The excavations in the granular materials behind the cofferdams alongside the rivers.

2. Any place where the artesian pressures exist i.e., where the head of water is greater than the usual static of the water pressure.

3. Behind the river embankments also in order to protect the floods.

How to Avoid Quicksand Condition?

Quick Sand condition is prevented by lowering the water table at the site before excavation or by alternatively, increasing the length of the upward flow of water. The Boiling condition is quite common at the time when a previous sand stratum that underlies the clay soil is in an artesian pressure condition.

Fun Facts

• Quicksand is not a kind of sand, this is a hydraulic condition.

• A sand soil becomes a ‘quicksand’ when this flow is upward under the hydraulic gradient that reduces the effective stress down to zero.

• In a typical sand soil condition, the critical hydraulic gradient is of the ratio 1: 4. 

• The Quick Sand condition occurs mainly in fine sand conditions.

The High artesian pressure in coarse-type sand is one of the most important reasons for the development of the quicksand condition.

Saltmarsh, also known as saltwater marsh, coastal salt marsh, or tidal marsh is an area of low, flat, poorly drained ground subjected to regular or occasional flooding by saltwater or brackish water and is covered by salt-tolerant plants such as grasses, herbs, or low shrubs. Saltmarsh plays an important role in the aquatic food web and provides nutrients to the coastal waters. Salt marsh also reinforces terrestrial animals and arrange coastal protection. 

Salt Marsh Evolution

Saltmarsh or coastal marsh evolve from young marshes to old marshes. In the eastern USA, the natural young marshes are vegetated for the major part with low marsh cordgrass known as Spartina alterniflora. Nutrients are carried by tidal currents through tidal channels. This enabled grasses to grow thick and lavish, so weakening the effect of tidal currents and waves accelerated the deposition rate of mud.

Erosion is minimized by the root and rhizomes of the plant. During that time, the marsh surface builds up above the high water level, high marsh species captured, defeated, and substitute the low marsh. The most stressed tolerant plant species occupy the lower reaches of the marshes while the competitive influencer occupies the upper elevation that is less stressful.  While the size of low marsh and high marsh is about equal, the ecosystem reaches the mature stage of development. 

The ongoing deposition of mud transforms the low marsh into the high marsh. Minimum water flows through the tidal channel of these elevated “ old marshes”. Accumulation of sand and mud on the high marshes metamorphose into dry land that is detached from the ocean effects. Lateral channel migration and wave attack at the bottom of the marsh cliffs are the main instruments for the erosion of mature salt marshes and their succeeding rejuvenation cycle. 

Salt Marsh Development Requirements

• Saltmarsh requires coarse-grained sediments.

• There may be no tidal currents or strong waves.

• They need salty conditions to grow. 

• They need a temperate or cool temperature. Incidental frozen temperatures do not destroy the plants.

• They demand a wide tidal range. This is crucial because it limits erosion, makes deposition of sediments possible, and causes a transparent zonation. 

Where Does Salt Marsh Found?

Saltmarsh is generally found along the bank of lagoons, shallow sea cut from the open sea, or along the bank of estuaries where rivers join the sea. In these areas, plants can easily take roots in the mud as water is calm. Saltmarsh is home to various coastal wildlife.

Salt Marsh Grass

Saltmarsh grass or cordgrass makes up the vast majority of plants in the salt marsh ecosystem and is invaluable to humans. Smooth cordgrass forms a great swaddle of vegetation that preserves tidal, coastal muds and protects the coastline from erosion. Saltmarsh cordgrass is widely used to produce salt meadow hay. The other species in these groups form smaller colonies within the salt marsh ecosystem generally in the area covering up the marsh which receives lesser saltwater flooding. 

Saltmarsh grasses or cord-grass are found abundantly along both Atlantic back bays and shores of Delaware bays. Some species are rarely found at inland sites, especially along roadsides where salt is used in winters or on areas where evaporation exceeds precipitation, creating a high water content in the soil. 

Did You Know?

• The salt marsh trail is a part of the deserted Musquodoboit railroad that has been transformed into a part of the TransCanada rail. The trail offers relaxed adventures to similar hikers and bikers.

• The salt marsh trail of Cole Harbour, Nova Scotia is a renowned walk constructed  within the Halifax regional community. This salt marsh trail offers delightful views of the salt marsh as the visitors walk along former railway turner walking tracks that cross through Cole Harbour.

• The grasses, sedges, and rushes that describe salt marsh are halophytic. It means that they are specially modified to survive in a saline habitat. 

• One acre of salt marsh can approximately absorb 1.5 millions gallon of floodwater which is equivalent to more than 2.25 Olympic size swimming pools.

• The US has approximately 3.8 million acres of salt marshes. Three-quarters of them are in the Southeast, including vast interconnected 1 million acres stretched from North California to Florida.

• Saltmarsh protects the shoreline from excessive erosion caused by wind, water, and ice. 

• Saltmarsh helps in maintaining water quality by filtering runoff and excessive nutrients.

• As per NOAA, salt marsh absorbs floodwaters and wave energy during the storm, which minimizes property damage in adjacent communities by up to 20%.