Category: Interview Questions

1. What Is Tb?

Tuberculosis (TB) is a serious bacterial disease. It is a particular public health concern because it can spread through the air when a person with TB disease coughs, sneezes, laughs, sings, or even speaks. TB is found most often in the lungs, but can spread to other parts of the body. Untreated, it can destroy lung tissue and make breathing difficult or impossible. Left untreated or improperly treated, TB can be fatal.

2. What Is Tb Disease?

TB disease develops when the immune system cannot keep tuberculosis bacteria under control, and bacteria begin to rapidly multiply and destroy tissue in the body: the bacteria can actually create a cavity or hole in the lung. People with TB disease are sick, and usually have symptoms.

TB disease can develop very soon after infection, or may appear many years after infection. People with TB disease can spread TB to others.

People with TB Disease:

• Usually have signs and symptoms
• Usually feel sick
• May spreads TB bacteria to others
• Usually have a positive TB test
• May have an abnormal chest x-ray, or positive sputum smear or culture
• Need treatment to stop the disease

TB disease normally affects the lung and is known as pulmonary TB. When TB occurs outside the lung it is referred to as extra-pulmonary TB. TB in the lungs or throat can be infectious, meaning the bacteria can be spread to other people. People with TB disease are most likely to spread it to those they spend time with every day, including family members, friends, coworkers, classmates, commuters, etc. TB disease in other parts of the body – such as the kidney or spine – is usually not easily spread to others.

The likelihood that TB will be transmitted heavily depends on the following factors:

• Infectiousness of the person with TB disease
• Environment in which exposure occurred
• Duration of exposure
• Virulence of the organism

3. If Millions Of People Have Tuberculosis, Why Is Speaker’s Case Different?

• Unlike most tuberculosis patients, Speaker has multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB). He was earlier thought to have extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB), which is even rarer.
• Multidrug-resistant TB doesn’t respond to the first preferred tuberculosis drugs. XDR TB doesn’t respond to the first and second preferred drug treatments.
• Speaker’s case also garnered instant attention when the CDC ordered him into isolation for medical treatment and alerted the public about his travels so that passengers on his transatlantic flights could get TB tests.

4. If Tuberculosis Is Contagious, Why Doesn’t Speaker’s Wife Or Friends Have Tuberculosis?

“It sounds like he’s probably somebody who was in a pretty early state of TB,” says Hamilton, cautioning that she isn’t personally familiar with Speaker’s case.

“He wasn’t horribly sick because he felt like going on his honeymoon and he was what’s called ‘smear negative.’ In those situations, often people aren’t very infectious,” says Hamilton.

5. How Does Tb Spread?

TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The TB bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks and sings. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become infected. TB is most commonly spread to others in confined, poorly ventilated spaces. Although anyone can be exposed to TB disease, certain groups are at higher risk for exposure, including health care professionals, the homeless, and individuals from countries where TB is highly prevalent.

TB is NOT spread by:

• Shaking someone’s hand
• Sharing food or drink
• Touching bed linens or toilet seats
• Sharing toothbrushes
• Kissing

6. What Is “smear-negative” Tb?

“What that means is that when he coughed up a specimen to give to the doctors to test for TB, the laboratory looked under the microscope [and] they didn’t see any TB bacteria. It was only when [the sample] was cultured that then they figured out, ‘Oh, there really is TB here’ and then it took some weeks to figure out it was drug resistant,” says Hamilton.

In contrast, smear-positive TB patients “have so much TB in their lungs that when the laboratory looks directly into the microscope, they can see the bacteria right there. Those people tend to be a lot more infectious or contagious to others than someone who really has disease but doesn’t yet have enough built up that they’re really coughing out a whole lot at a time.”

When TB bacteria keep growing, eventually “you can see it under a microscope, and that’s associated with easily infecting other people,” Hamilton says.

7. What Are The Symptoms Of Tb?

The general symptoms of TB disease include feeling tired, weight loss, loss of appetite, fever, and night sweats. The symptoms of TB disease of the lungs also include a bad cough that does not improve and which lasts 3 weeks or more, chest pain, and coughing up blood. Symptoms of TB disease occurring outside of the lungs depend on the area affected.

Since symptoms of TB usually start gradually, often TB is not suspected, or is misdiagnosed as another illness.

8. Speaker Has Said He Felt Fine And Had Been Exercising With No Obvious Symptoms. How Is That Possible? Is That Because He Was In The Early Stages?

• “That’s definitely how that’s possible,” says Hamilton.
• She recalls the case of a surgeon who operated on a patient who was later found to have TB and who was also exposed to TB while working in Africa.
• “He had TB,” Hamilton says. “In talking with him, he said, ‘well, when I do my five-mile runs, I might have noticed I was slightly more out of breath than usual.’ In other words, [he was] healthy, working, running, totally fine,” Hamilton says.
• “I feel quite certain that as time went on, he would have become ill. He just wasn’t quite there yet,” she says. “It goes to show that these diseases can kind of sneak up on people.”

9. How Is Tb Disease Treated?

TB disease can be treated by taking anti-tuberculosis drugs for 6 to 12 months or longer. It is very important that people who have TB disease finish this medicine, and take their drugs exactly as ordered. If they stop taking the drugs too soon, they can become sick again; if they do not take the drugs correctly, the germs that are still alive may become resistant to those drugs. TB that is resistant to drugs is harder and more expensive to treat.

In Mississippi the local health department staff meets regularly with patients who have TB to watch them take their medications. This is called directly observed therapy (DOT). DOT helps the patient complete treatment in the least amount of time. Treatment is usually divided into two phases: the initial phase and the continuation phase. The initial phase begins with four drugs given daily for fourteen consecutive days. The remainder of the initial phase (usually about 2 months) may be daily or twice weekly depending on the patient’s drug tolerance and the extent of the disease or the patient’s other conditions. The continuation phase typically will last an additional 4 to 7 months with not less than 2 drugs. Laboratory testing is performed at regular intervals or as needed to monitor the patient’s progress and drug tolerance.

10. Do Most Tb Patients Have Symptoms, And What Are Tuberculosis Symptoms?

“That’s what we think, that most people eventually have some kind of symptom,” says Hamilton.

When people get sick with tuberculosis, their symptoms may include fever, night sweats, cough, appetite loss, weight loss, bloody phlegm, and loss of energy.

11. Can Anyone Catch Tb?

• “Yes, if they are in close association with someone who has tuberculosis,” says Hamilton.
• “That means not just walking past them in Hartsfield Airport in Atlanta,” she adds.
• “Usually it’s sharing an office with them, living in the same household with them, being in a homeless shelter with them and sleeping in a bed next to them — [spending] time with that person.”
• “Tuberculosis is around,” Hamilton says. “Does that mean people should be nervous about going to the mall? No. It’s not horribly common. Now, if people travel to countries where there’s still a lot of TB, then your risk is increased.”

12. What Is Tb Infection?

When a person is diagnosed with TB infection, it means that they have been exposed to someone with TB disease, have inhaled TB bacteria, and become infected with TB. About 5% of infected people progress to TB disease within the first two years after becoming infected. Another 5% will develop disease later. People who are infected:

• Have no symptoms
• Don’t feel sick
• Cannot spread TB to others
• Usually have a positive TB skin test or TB blood test (Interferon Gamma Release Assay)
• May develop TB disease if not treated for TB infection

People at greater risks of progressing to TB disease usually have a weakened immune system. Older people; children under the age of 5; people with chronic illness (especially diabetes), lung diseases, or certain cancers; those who smoke, abuse substances, or take immune suppressive medications such as TnF inhibitors; or those with HIV infection have much higher risk of developing TB disease if not treated.

Sometimes people are given treatment to prevent TB infection even if their TB test is negative. This is often done with infants, children and HIV-infected people who have recently spent time with someone who has infectious TB disease. These groups are at very high risk of developing serious TB disease soon after they are exposed to TB bacteria. If you are prescribed treatment for TB infection, it is important that you take all of your pills exactly as prescribed. You should follow-up regularly with your health care provider while on medication so they can monitor how you are doing.

13. What Tests Determine Whether A Person Has Tb? Are Those Tests Safe If You Are Pregnant Or Are Trying To Conceive?

“The tests are safe whether you’re pregnant or are trying to [conceive],” says Hamilton.

“The most common test is called the tuberculin skin test or PPD. That’s where a tiny, killed piece of TB is put right under the skin and you see if your body reacts to it or not. There’s a newer blood test called QuantiFERON that tells us about the same information. That test not available all over the place,” Hamilton says.

Since tuberculosis grows slowly, people get a follow-up test about two to three months after their initial test.

14. How Is Tb Infection Treated?

A person with TB infection needs to take anti-tuberculosis drugs in order to kill the TB germs and prevent TB disease from developing in the future. Some people are more likely than others to develop TB disease once they have TB infection. This includes people with HIV infection, people who were recently exposed to someone with TB disease, smokers, people with certain medical conditions such as diabetes and kidney problems, and persons taking immunosuppressive drugs.

The newest and best treatment for TB infection requires two drugs given in one directly observed dose per week for 12 weeks. Other single drug treatment options take from four to nine months to complete.

15. How Is Tb Treated?

• Ninety-five percent of people will respond to the combination of the four first-line drugs — ionized, revamping, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, Hamilton says.
• Drug-resistant tuberculosis is rarer and XDR TB is rarer still, affecting a few cases per year in the U.S., Hamilton says.
• But in other countries, it’s really increasing, Hamilton says. So it is true that it’s not that far away. Our TB program budgets have been cut every year, and so we get less and less able to respond to this sort of thing.
• Hamilton also warns that if our regular TB cases aren’t managed appropriately and aggressively, they can become drug resistant. While we don’t want to engender panic, it’s a real concern.

16. What About Surgery?

• Surgery may be done to remove damaged areas of the lungs if drug treatments fail for XDR TB.
• Speaker got lung surgery on July 17 to remove parts of his lung affected by tuberculosis. The operation was performed at the University of Colorado Hospital at the Anschutz Medical Campus in Aurora, Colo., by John D. Mitchell, MD, chief of general thoracic surgery at the University of Colorado Hospital.
• Speaker’s operation was done with a minimally invasive technique called video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS).
• In VATS, surgeons access the lung through a 2-inch incision in the patient’s side, as well as two incisions (each 1-centimeter long) for surgical instruments and a tiny, fiber optic camera.
• The infected part of Speaker’s lung has been described as roughly the size of a tennis ball, notes the National Jewish Medical and Research Center.
• Marvin Pomerantz, MD, director of the Center for the Surgical Treatment of Lung Infections at the University of Colorado at Denver Health Sciences Center, tells WebMD that he wouldn’t call lung surgery a last resort.
• “I’d call it part of the overall treatment of the difficult cases of tuberculosis,” with more antibiotic treatment after the operation, Pomerantz says.

17. What Is Tb Exposure?

TB exposure occurs when a person shares air with someone who has active infectious TB disease. You may have been exposed to TB if you spent time near someone with TB disease of the lungs or throat. You can only get infected by breathing in TB germs that a person expels into the air. You cannot get TB from someone’s clothes, drinking glass, eating utensils, handshake, toilet, or other surfaces where a TB patient has been. Most people are never exposed to a person with active infectious tuberculosis disease for a period long enough to become infected.

People most likely to become infected are those that share air with a TB case for prolonged period of time, either in a single or group setting. Individuals more likely to be exposed to TB include health care workers, the homeless, persons living or working in congregate or long term care facilities, and persons traveling to or living in countries with high TB prevalence. An estimated 10-15 million U.S. residents and one-third of the world’s population are currently infected with the TB organism. A TB Interferon Gamma Release Assay (blood test) will identify TB infection.

18. Is Tb Infection Dangerous?

Untreated, TB infection can progress to TB disease. A person with TB infection does not feel sick and has no symptoms. Persons with TB infection cannot spread the infection to others. A skin test or blood test can detect the presence of TB infection. TB infection should be treated to prevent it from progressing to TB disease which can be spread to others.

19. How Can I Be Tested For Tb?

You can get a TB skin test or blood test at a local health clinic or your doctor’s office. The tests are quick and simple, and give results in only a few days. A blood test is the preferred test and is more specific than a skin test. A skin test can require two to four visits whereas the blood test can be performed with a single visit. (TB skin tests are typically not given on Thursdays because of the required time-frame for the follow-up visit.)

20. Who Should Be Tested?

You should get a TB test if:

• You have spent time with a person who has active TB.
• You have the symptoms of TB: coughing for more than two weeks, pain in the chest, coughing up blood, and fatigue.
• You have a chronic disease such as diabetes, or another condition that weakens the immune system.
• You have lived or traveled in a foreign country where TB is common.
• You have lived or worked in a place where TB is common: migrant farm camps, prisons, homeless shelters or other crowded places where disease can spread.
• You use drugs injected with needles that may not be sterile.
• You have HIV infection.
• You are going to start a TNF inhibitor or other immunosuppressive therapy (get tested before starting).
• You are being evaluated for treatment with immunosuppressive drugs such as TnF inhibitors for arthritis.

21. What Are Tb Reporting Requirements?

State laws and regulations require that TB infection, suspected TB, or cases of tuberculosis be reported to the Mississippi State Department of Health. Active TB must be reported within 24 hours of first suspicion. Specific information on reporting requirement may be found in the Rules and Regulations Governing Reportable Diseases. MSDH provides treatment and follow-up of all TB patients and contacts.

22. How Is Tb Controlled In Correctional Facilities?

The transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in correctional facilities presents a public health problem for correctional facility employees and inmates and the communities into which untreated inmates may be released. A primary reason for the high risk of TB infection and TB disease in correctional facilities is the disproportionate number of inmates who have risk factors for exposure to TB or, if infected, for development of active disease. These risk factors include crowded communal living, infection with HIV, substance abuse, and being a member of a lower socioeconomic population that has poor access to health care.

With this in mind, the Department of Health and the Department of Corrections work collaboratively to ensure all inmates and employees are tested for tuberculosis, and that those found to be infected are appropriately treated. This helps stop the spread of TB and helps protect all communities statewide. Additionally, the State TB Program has assigned nurses to all three state correctional facilities to ensure open communication with the facilities, address questions and concerns, monitor patient progress, ensure appropriate treatment and follow-up, and facilitate discharge planning for TB and HIV patients.

23. What Is Multi-drug Resistant Tuberculosis (mdr-tb)?

Multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) is tuberculosis disease in which the TB bacterium is resistant to isoniazid and revamping, the two strongest anti-tuberculosis medications. TB can become resistant to antibiotics when the drugs are misused or mismanaged, when patients do not complete their full course of treatment, when healthcare providers prescribe the wrong treatment, the wrong dose, or length of time for taking the drugs; or when the drugs are of poor quality.

Treating MDR-TB is complicated and involves the use of second-line medications that carry greater risk of side effects and adverse reactions. Patients taking these drugs must be monitored closely throughout the course of treatment. The regimen usually requires at least 18-24 months and must be individualized based upon the patient’s medical history. Treatment for patients co-infected with HIV can be more complicated, usually further lengthening treatment time.

24. What Is Extensively Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (xdr-tb)?

Extensively drug resistant TB (XDR-TB) is a relatively rare type of MDR-TB. XDR-TB is defined as TB which is resistant to ionized and revamping, plus resistant to any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs (i.e., amikacin, kanamycin, or capreomycin). Because XDR-TB is resistant to first-line and second-line drugs, patients are left with treatment options that are much less effective and may require prolonged treatment.

25. Can People Contract Bovine Tuberculosis?

Yes. Bovine tuberculosis refers to infection with bacteria called Mycobacterium bovis, and M. bovis. Mycobacterium bovis is related to another organism that causes tuberculosis in humans, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but M. bovis is found most commonly in cattle and other animals. People can become infected with M. bovis when they consume raw milk and unpasteurized dairy products.

Symptoms of bovine tuberculosis in people depend on the parts of the body infected; most infections result in no or only mild symptoms, including fever, night sweats, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. A comprehensive testing program conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, state animal health agencies, and livestock ranchers has virtually eliminated bovine tuberculosis from cattle in the United States. However, bovine tuberculosis remains common in many developing countries, and persons should refrain from consuming imported dairy products that are not pasteurized.

26. What Is A Tb Contact?

A TB contact is a person that has been exposed to TB. TB contacts are ranked from high priority to low. High priority means either the person has had prolonged exposure, or that the person is highly susceptible to becoming infected and progressing to TB disease — children under the age of 5 or persons infected with HIV or on immunosuppressive therapy. Contacts should be promptly tested once exposure is known, and tested again about 10 weeks after the last known exposure. If either test is positive, the person is considered infected and requires additional follow-up and treatment.

27. What Is The Incubation Period Of Tuberculosis?

From infection to development of a positive TB test (the incubation period) can take 2 to 10 weeks. The risk for developing active disease is the highest in the first two years after infection. If not treated, a risk continues throughout your lifetime.

28. What Is Dot?

DOT (directly-observed therapy) means that a trained health care worker or other designated individual (excluding a family member) provides the prescribed TB drugs and watches the patient swallow every dose. DOT is the most effective strategy for making sure patients take their medicines. Mississippi was the first state to adopt DOT as the standard of care. It is now recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and World Health Organization as the standard for treating TB.

29. Why Use Dot?

• We cannot predict who will take medications as directed, and who will not. People from all social classes, educational backgrounds, ages, genders, and ethnicities can have problems taking medications correctly.
• Studies show that 86-90% of patients receiving DOT complete their therapy, compared to 61% for those on self-administered therapy.
• DOT helps patients finish TB therapy as quickly as possible, without unnecessary gaps.
• DOT helps prevent TB from spreading to others.
• DOT decreases the risk of drug-resistance resulting from erratic or incomplete treatment.
• DOT decreases the chances of treatment failure and relapse.

30. Who Can Provide Dot?

• A nurse or other trained health care worker from the patient’s county public health department normally provides DOT.
• In some situations, it works best for clinics, home care agencies, correctional facilities, treatment centers, schools, employers, and other facilities to provide DOT, under the guidance of the local health department.
• Family members should not be used for DOT. DOT providers must remain objective.
• For complex regimens including IV/IM medications or twice daily dosing, home care agencies may provide DOT or share responsibilities with the local health department.
• If resources for providing DOT are limited, priority should be given to patients most at risk.
• In some cases observed therapy may be performed using live streaming video.

31. How Can A Dot Provider Build Rapport And Trust?

• “Start where the patient is.”
• Protect confidentiality.
• Communicate clearly.
• Avoid criticizing the patient’s behavior; respectfully offer helpful suggestions for change.
• Be on time and be consistent.
• Adopt and reflect a nonjudgmental attitude.

1. Do I Have Internet Access?

First things first, if your Internet connection is as dead as a doornail, check your network cabling. This isn’t just for people who are using Cat-5 cable to hook your their networks.

If your Wi-Fi Access Point (AP) or cable or DSL modem have had their power cords unplugged you’re not going to connect with anything.

2. What Is The Simple Definition Of Internet?

The Internet is not synonymous with World Wide Web. The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure.

It connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet.

3. What Is Http Protocol In Internet Technology?

Stands for “Hypertext Transfer Protocol.” HTTP is the protocol used to transfer data over the web.

It is part of the Internet protocol suite and defines commands and services used for transmitting webpage data. HTTP uses a server-client model.

4. Which Device Is Required For An Internet Connection?

A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several computers and other devices to a single Internet connection, which is known as a home network.

Many routers are wireless, which allows you to create a home wireless network, commonly known as a Wi-Fi network.

5. What Type Of Connection Do I Have To The Internet?

Different Types of Internet Connections:

• Dial-Up (Analog 56K).
• DSL. DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. 
• Cable. Cable provides an internet connection through a cable modem and operates over cable TV lines. 
• Wireless. Wireless, or Wi-Fi, as the name suggests, does not use telephone lines or cables to connect to the internet. 
• Satellite.
• Cellular.

6. How Important Is The Internet?

The Importance of Internet Service in Today’s Generation. The internet has undoubtedly become a huge part of our lives.

Many people in today’s generation are relying on the internet to do a lot of different tasks.Since the internet is full of information, most students use this as a source of education.

7. What Are The Disadvantages Of The Internet?

Bullying, trolls, stalkers, and crime:

• Exploitation and pornography and violent images. 
• Addiction, time waster, and causes distractions.  
• Never being able to disconnect.
• Identity theft, hacking, viruses, and cheating. 
• Spam and advertising. 
• Affects focus and patience.
• Depression, loneliness, and social isolation.

8. What Do You Need To Be Able To Connect To The Internet?

To connect to the Internet you need the following four things:

• A computer.
• A modem and telephone line (if you are using dial up access) 
• An Internet browser (software) and software to connect you to the ISP.
• An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) Souvenirs.

9. What Is The Difference Between Broadband And High Speed Internet?

The term broadband commonly refers to high-speed Internet access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial up access.

Broadband includes several high-speed transmission technologies such as Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Cable Modem.

10. Why Do People Want To Be On The Internet?

Communication People use the Internet to communicate with one another.

Without the Internet, it would be both more expensive and slow to maintain personal and professional relationships.

11. What Kind Of Software Is Needed To Connect To The Internet?

The hardware that you will need for you to connect to internet service is a modem or router.

The software that you will need is the internet explorer or Firefox and also you need an ISP.

12. What Is The Role Of Internet Service Providers?

Internet Service Providers serve large companies by providing a direct connection from the company’s network to the internet.

Provides internet services like email, access to software tools, security service and Web hosting.Few companies provide free ISP services that require internet occasionally.

13. What Is The Purpose Of The Internet?

Reclaiming The Internet’s Original Purpose.The Internet, so powerful for sharing text, images, sounds and videos, is now weakest at doing that for which it was originally designed exchanging raw data between researchers.

14. How Can The Internet Be Used?

Computers have programs called browsers, which are used to access the world wide web (www).

The web is one of the most important uses of the internet. There are lots of websites on the internet. They are made up of web pages.

15. What Is The Difference Between The Internet And The World Wide Web?

The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure.

It connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet.

1. What Exactly Is Svn?

Open source version control system (VCS) which is in the short referred to as SVN, specifically designed for tracing all the modifications that have taken place to the source code of your design or files. SVN is a source which is utilised to direct all the files and folders and all the recent modifications which have happened in these files. SVN helps us to keep a complete track of the changes done by any person or by yourself onto the files.

2. List Out What All Things Should Be Stored In Svn Repository?

• Source Code
• Mysql Queries
• Database Updates
• Project regarding important files
• Product Documents
• Minutes of Meting and Imp Email

3. Difference Between Svn Commit And Svn Update?

SVN commit:
Push (upload) the local changes to Repository.

SVN Update:
Get (download) the Repository changes files to local system.

4. What Is Use Of Revert In Svn?

Revert your local changes.

It have two types:

1. Local Revert:
   It will delete all changes from files which you made after updates and before commit.
2. Repo Revert:
   Upload the changes to previous Repo.

5. List Out All The Command Prompts Used In The Svn?

SVN has a quite long list of commands prompt out of which few are considered to be most effective and are regularly used in performing different operations in this system.

Some of the most commonly used common prompts in SVN are:

• Revert
• Import
• Checkout
• Commit
• Update
• Copy

Beside these command prompts SVN has also the presence of other set of commands which are handy for different set of operations.

6. How To Delete File From Svn Repo?

svn delete filename

7. What Is The Use Of Tortoisesvn?

TortoiseSVN is a Subversion client, implemented as a Microsoft Windows shell extension, that helps programmers manage different versions of the source code for their programs. It is a free software released under the GNU General Public License.

8. How To List The Entire Cos By A User In Different Jobs Through A Single Command?

• ct lsco -me
• this gives all checked out files by a user
• ct lsco -avobs -cview -me
• List all files checked out to all views by a user

9. Describe About Different Best Practices For Svn?

Some of the best practical approaches which are the best fit for SVN if effectively followed include:

• The very first thing to be taken care of while working with the SVN is that make use of your own local space in order to perform any function in the SVN.
• Secondly while working on SVN platform it is highly advisable to commit to all the autonomous changes no matter how small the changes may be. 
• Making use of the comment option will be of a great help for the team to know what are the changes are done and why by just going through the comment section. 
• The best approach in SVN is to validate all the set of files you are committing, you actually changed and it is always advisable to keep a copy of the update whenever you proceed to commit to the report.

10. Tell Us About All The Elements That Should Be Stored In The Svn Repository?

SVN repository can be used for storing all the existing changes and files which are present in the branches of the existing system. 

Here below is the list of all the things which are stored in the SVN repository:

• MySQL Queries
• Project regarding important files
• Product Documents
• Database Updates
• Minutes of Meting and Imp Email
• Source Code

11. Explain About The Concept Of Synchronizing With The Repository & Tell Us About The Disparity Between Synchronizing And Update?

The term synchronizing with the repository simply relates to the procedure of updating your local workspace with all the changes which have been committed by the other members of your team.

This is totally different from the concept of Update as Merge is a function that can be performed manually for the merge conflicts by simply using this.

12. What Is The Command To Create A New Directory Under Version Control?

Command to create a new directory under version control includes

Svn mkdir directory

Svn mkdir http://url/directory

13. Mention How You Can Import Your Existing Directory Into The New Repository?

The command you will use to import your existing directory into the new repository you have to write

Svn import/home/my surface/programming 

file:///home/mysurface/repo/programing_repo-m “initial import”.

14. State The Procedure Of Creating A Patch Is Svn?

For the purpose of applying a patch in SVN the first thing you are required to do is to “Create Patch” by stimulating changes and creating the .dff file. Then, this existing .diff file can be implemented to the latest code base by using “Apply Patch”.

15. Differentiate Between The Git & Svn Repository?

The major differentiating aspects of GIT & SVN concepts are:

• The command “commit” is not supported by GIT across multiple branches or tags & whereas SVN facilitates the creation of new folders t any location of your repository. 
• GIT is considered to be unvarying where as SVN supports the function of multiple revisions.
• In the case where your presented with larger files and frequently varying binary files, the GIT is less preferred & where as SVN is best preferred for handling a number of projects which are stored in the same repository.

16. Differentiate The Concepts Of Commit And Update?

In SVN repository the word update relates to the process of updating the local workspace in relation to all the changes which are done within the repository by the members of the team.

While the word commit relates to the simple process of making changes within the local to repository. In much easier terminology it can stated as uploading a file into the repository.

17. What Can You Say Regarding The G & R Result Codes In Svn?

The SVN result codes are:

G Code:
 G Code indicates all the changes which are that are consolidated into working copy of the report automatically. 

R Code:
R Code specifies that particular context or item which is replaced in the present working directory copy. It indicates that a particular file has underwent some changes are is arranged for deleting and some other new file is scheduled to get added in its area.

18. State The Process Involved To Revert To A Previous Version?

For the purpose of retrieving the previously existing version, the main command on which you are needed to focus is the “revert” command. The action performed by the revert command is that it simply erase all the local edits. But the main command which is needed to be used for this operation is the “merge” command. 

 This can be explained with a simple example.  For instance, the present version of your file [xyz.txt] is version 201 and the version which you currently require is 301.

In such an instance the command code should be executed in this manner

 svn merge –r 201:301 xyz.txt

svn commit –m “Reverted to revision 301” xyz.txt

19. What Do You Mean By “synchronizing With Repository” ? How Is It Different From “update”?

Synchronizing with Repository is the process of updating the local workspace with the changes committed by others. This is different from Update as we can do Merge Manually for the Merge conflicts using this.

20. What Is The Best Practice For Svn?

Best practices for SVN:

• Update and Test before commit
• Work from your own local workspace
• Commit small autonomous changes
• Validate the files you are committing, you actually changed
• Keep in touch with repository
• Watch for conflicts
• Always group your check-in logically
• Use comment

21. What Is “branch” , “tag” And “trunk” In Svn ?

• Trunk is the main body of development, originating from the start of the project till end.
• Branch is a copy of code derived from a certain point in the trunk that is used for applying major changes to the code while preserving the integrity of the code in the trunk.
• Trunk is a point in time on the trunk or a branch that you wish to preserve. This is like base lining the code after a major release.

1. A Man, His Wife And Daughter Worked In A Graden. The Man Worked For 3 Days, His Wife For 2 Days And Daughter For 4 Days. The Ratio Of Daily Wages For Man To Women Is 5 : 4 And The Ratio For Man To Daughter Is 5 : 3. If Their Total Earnings Is Mounted To Rs. 105, Then Find The Daily Wage Of The Daughter?

Assume that the daily wages of man, women and daughter are Rs 5x, Rs. 4x, Rs 3x respectively.

Multiply (no. of days) with (assumed daily wage) of each person to calculate the value of x. 

[3 x (5x)] + [2 x (4x)] + [4 x (3x)] = 105

[15x + 8x + 12x] = 105

35x = 105

x = 3

Hence, man’s daily wage = 5x = 5 x 3 = Rs. 15 

Wife’s daily wage = 4x = 4 x 3 = Rs. 12

Daughter’s daily wage = 3x = 3 x 3 = Rs. 9.

2. Amit, Raju And Ram Agree To Pay Their Total Electricity Bill In The Proportion 3 : 4 : 5. Amit Pays First Day’s Bill Of Rs. 50, Raju Pays Second Day’s Bill Of Rs. 55 And Ram Pays Third Day’s Bill Of Rs. 75. How Much Amount Should Amit Pay To Settle The Accounts?

Toatal bill paid by Amit, Raju and Ram = ( 50 + 55 +75 ) = Rs. 180

Let amount paid by Amit, Raju and Ram be Rs. 3x, 4x and 5x respectively.

Therefore, (3x + 4x + 5x ) = 180

12x = 180 

x = 15 

Therefore, amount paid by,

Amit = Rs. 45

Raju = Rs. 60

Ram = Rs. 75

But actually as given in the question, Amit pays Rs. 50, Raju pays Rs. 55 and Ram pays Rs. 80. Hence, Amit pays Rs. 5 less than the actual amount to be paid. Hence he needs to pay Rs. 5 to Raju settle the amount.

3. Salaries Of Ram And Sham Are In The Ratio Of 4 : 5. If The Salary Of Each Is Increased By Rs. 5000, Then The New Ratio Becomes 50 : 60. What Is Sham’s Present Salary?

Assume original salaries of Ram and Sham as 4x and 5x respectively.

Therefore,

(4x + 5000)/= 50

(5x + 5000) 60

60 (4x + 5000) = 50 (5x + 5000)

10 x = 50,000 

5x = 25, 000

Sham’s present salary = 5x + 5000 = 25,000 + 5000

Sham’s present salary = Rs. 30,000.

4. Two Dice Are Tossed.the Probability That The Total Score Is A Prime Number Is?

Clearly, n(S) = (6 x 6) = 36.

Let E = Event that the sum is a prime number.

Then E= { (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4,3),(5, 2), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 5) }

n(E) = 15.

P(E) = n(E)/n(S) = 15/36 = 5/12.

5. Find The Lcm Of Following Three Fractions:36/,48/,72/?

Numerators = 36, 48 and 72.

72 is largest number among them. 72 is not divisible by 36 or 48

Start with table of 72.

72 x 2 = 144 = divisible by 72, 36 and 48

? LCM of numerators = 144

Denominators = 225, 150 and 65

We can see that they can be divided by 5.

On dividing by 5 we get 45, 30 and 13

We cannot divide further.

So, HCF = GCD = 5

LCM of fraction =144/5.

6. Find The Largest Number To Divide All The Three Numbers Leaving The Remainders 4, 3, And 15 Respectively At The End?

Here greatest number that can divide means the HCF

Remainders are different so simply subtract remainders from numbers

17 – 4 = 13; 42 – 3 = 39; 93 – 15 = 78

Now let’s find HCF of 13, 39 and 78

By direct observation we can see that all numbers are divisible by 13.

? HCF = 13 = required greatest number.

7. The Two Given Numbers A And B Are In The Ratio 5:6 Such That Their Lcm Is 480. Find Their Hcf?

Let K be common factor. So 2 numbers are 5K and 6K

Also K is the greatest common factor (HCF) as 5 and 6 have no other common factor

? 5K x 6K = 480 x K

K = 16 = HCF.

8. A Wall Is 4.5 Meters Long And 3.5 Meters High. Find The Number Of Maximum Sized Wallpaper Squares, If The Wall Has To Be Covered With Only The Square Wall Paper Pieces Of Same Size?

Wall can be covered only by using square sized wallpaper pieces.

Different sized squares are not allowed.

Length = 4.5 m = 450 cm; 

Height = 3.5 m = 350 cm

Maximum square size possible means HCF of 350 and 450

We can see that 350 and 450 can be divided by 50.

On dividing by 50, we get 7 and 9.

Since we cannot divide further,

             HCF = 50 = size of side of square

Number of squares =Wall area/=450 x 350/= 63

           Square area=50 x 50.

9. Find The Largest Number Of 4-digits Divisible By 12, 15 And 18?

Required largest number must be divisible by the L.C.M. of 12, 15 and 18 

L.C.M. of 12, 15 and 18

12 = 2 × 2 × 3

15 =5 × 3

18 = 2 × 3 × 3 

L.C.M. = 180 

Now divide 9999 by 180, we get remainder as 99 

The required largest number = (9999 – 99) =9900 

Number 9900 is exactly divisible by 180.

10. A Trader Mixes 26 Kg Of Rice At Rs. 20 Per Kg With 30 Kg Of Rice Of Other Variety At Rs. 36 Per Kg And Sells The Mixture At Rs. 30 Per Kg. His Profit Percent Is?

C.P. of 56 kg rice = Rs. (26 x 20 + 30 x 36) = Rs. (520 + 1080) = Rs. 1600.

S.P. of 56 kg rice = Rs. (56 x 30) = Rs. 1680.

Gain =(80/1600*100) % = 5%.

11. By Selling 45 Lemons For Rs 40, A Man Loses 20%. How Many Should He Sell For Rs 24 To Gain 20% In The Transaction ?

Let S.P. of 45 lemons be Rs. x. 

Then, 80 : 40 = 120 : x or x = 40×120/80= 60 

For Rs.60, lemons sold = 45 

For Rs.24, lemons sold  =4560×24= 18.

12. If Books Bought At Prices Ranging From Rs. 200 To Rs. 350 Are Sold At Prices Ranging From Rs. 300 To Rs. 425, What Is The Greatest Possible Profit That Might Be Made In Selling Eight Books ?

Least Cost Price = Rs. (200 * 8) = Rs. 1600.

Greatest Selling Price = Rs. (425 * 8) = Rs. 3400.

Required profit = Rs. (3400 – 1600) = Rs. 1800.

13. If The Cost Price Is 25% Of Selling Price. Then What Is The Profit Percent?

Let the S.P = 100

then C.P. = 25

Profit = 75

Profit% = (75/25) * 100 = 300%.

14. A Man Buys Oranges At Rs 5 A Dozen And An Equal Number At Rs 4 A Dozen. He Sells Them At Rs 5.50 A Dozen And Makes A Profit Of Rs 50. How Many Oranges Does He Buy?

Cost Price of 2 dozen oranges Rs. (5 + 4) = Rs. 9.

Sell price of 2 dozen oranges = Rs. 11. 

If profit is Rs 2, oranges bought = 2 dozen. 

If profit is Rs. 50, oranges bought = (2/2) * 50 dozens = 50 dozens.

15. The Sum Of All 3 Digit Numbers Divisible By 3 Is?

All 3 digit numbers divisible by 3 are :

102, 105, 108, 111, …, 999.

This is an A.P. with first element ‘a’ as 

102 and difference  ‘d’ as 3.

Let it contains n terms. Then,

102 + (n – 1) x³ = 999 

102 + 3n-3 = 999

3n = 900 or n = 300

Sum of AP = n/2 [2*a  + (n-1)*d]

Required sum = 300/2[2*102 + 299*3] = 165150. 

16. The Speed Of A Car Increases By 2 Kms After Every One Hour. If The Distance Travelling In The First One Hour Was 35 Kms. What Was The Total Distance Travelled In 12 Hours?

Total distance travelled in 12 hours =(35+37+39+…..upto 12 terms)

This is an A.P with first term, a=35, number of terms,

n= 12,d=2.

Required distance = 12/2[2 x 35+{12-1) x 2]

=6(70+23)

= 552 kms.

17. A Man Walking At The Rate Of 5 Km/hr Crosses A Bridge In 15 Minutes. The Length Of The Bridge (in Metres) Is?

speed= (5×5/18)m/sec=25/18 m/sec.

Distance covered in 15 minutes= (25/18 x 15 x 60)m= 1250 m.

18. A Man On Tour Travels First 160 Km At 64 Km/hr And The Next 160 Km At 80 Km/hr. The Average Speed For The First 320 Km Of The Tour Is?

Total time taken    = (160/64 + 160/8)hrs

                            = 9/2 hrs.

Average speed       = (320 x 2/9) km.hr

                            = 71.11 km/hr.

19. If The Product And H.c.f. Of Two Numbers Are 4107 And 37 Respectively, Then Find The Greater Number?

4107 is the square of 37. 

So let two numbers be 37x and 37y.

37x × 37y = 4107

xy = 3

3 is the product of (1 and 3)

x = 1 and y = 3

37x = 37 × 1 =37

37y = 37 × 3 = 111

Greater number = 111.

20. The Traffic Lights At Three Different Road Crossings Change After Every 40 Sec, 72 Sec And 108 Sec Respectively. If They All Change Simultaneously At 5 : 20 : 00 Hours, Then Find The Time At Which They Will Change Simultaneously?

Traffic lights at three different road crossings change after every 40 sec, 72 sec and 108 sec respectively.

Therefore, find the L.C.M. of 40, 72 and 108. 

L.C.M. of 40, 72 and 108 = 1080

The traffic lights will change again after 1080 seconds = 18 min

The next simultaneous change takes place at 5 : 38 : 00 hrs. 

21. John, Smith And Kate Start At Same Time, Same Point And In Same Direction To Run Around A Circular Ground. John Completes A Round In 250 Seconds, Smith In 300 Seconds And Kate In 150 Seconds. Find After What Time Will They Meet Again At The Starting Point?

L.C.M. of 250, 300 and 150 = 1500 sec

Dividing 1500 by 60 we get 25, which mean 25 minutes. 

John, Smith and Kate meet after 25 minutes.

22. The Product Of Two Numbers Is 2028 And Their H.c.f. Is 13. The Number Of Such Pairs Is?

Let the numbers 13a and 13b.

Then, 13a x 13b = 2028

=>ab = 12.

Now, the co-primes with product 12 are (1, 12) and (3, 4).

[Note: Two integers a and b are said to be coprime or relatively prime if they have no common positive factor other than 1 or, equivalently, if their greatest common divisor is 1 ]

So, the required numbers are (13 x 1, 13 x 12) and (13 x 3, 13 x 4).

Clearly, there are 2 such pairs.

23. Three Number Are In The Ratio Of 3 : 4 : 5 And Their L.c.m. Is 2400. Their H.c.f. Is?

Let the numbers be 3x, 4x and 5x.

Then, their L.C.M. = 60x.

So, 60x = 2400 or x = 40.

The numbers are (3 x 40), (4 x 40) and (5 x 40).

Hence, required H.C.F. = 40.

24. The Sum Of Two Numbers Is 528 And Their H.c.f Is 33. The Number Of Pairs Of Numbers Satisfying The Above Condition Is?

Let the required numbers be 33a and 33b. 

Then 33a +33b= 528   =>   a+b = 16.

Now, co-primes with sum 16 are (1,15) , (3,13) , (5,11) and (7,9).

Therefore, Required numbers are  ( 33 x 1, 33 x 15), (33 x 3, 33 x 13), (33 x 5, 33 x 11), (33 x 7, 33 x 9)

The number of such pairs is 4.

25. The L.c.m Of Two Numbers Is 495 And Their H.c.f Is 5. If The Sum Of The Numbers Is 100, Then Their Difference Is?

Let the numbers be x and (100-x).

Then,x(100-x)=5*495

 =>  x²-100x+2475=0

 =>  (x-55) (x-45) = 0

 =>  x = 55 or x = 45

The numbers are 45 and 55

Required difference = (55-45) = 10.

26. A Rectangular Courtyard 3.78 Meters Long 5.25 Meters Wide Is To Be Paved Exactly With Square Tiles, All Of The Same Size. What Is The Largest Size Of The Tile Which Could Be Used For The Purpose?

3.78 meters =378 cm = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7

5.25 meters=525 cm = 5 × 5 × 3 × 7

Hence common factors are 3 and 7

Hence LCM = 3 × 7 = 21

Hence largest size of square tiles that can be paved exactly with square tiles is 21 cm.

27. What Is The Probability Of Getting 53 Mondays In A Leap Year?

1 year = 365 days . A leap year has 366 days

A year has 52 weeks. Hence there will be 52 Sundays for sure.

52 weeks = 52 x 7 = 364days

366 – 364 = 2 days

In a leap year there will be 52 Sundays and 2 days will be left.

These 2 days can be:

1. Sunday, Monday

2. Monday, Tuesday

3. Tuesday, Wednesday

4. Wednesday, Thursday

5. Thursday, Friday

6. Friday, Saturday

7. Saturday, Sunday

Of these total 7 outcomes, the favourable outcomes are 2.

Hence the probability of getting 53 days = 2/7.

28. A Man Bought An Article And Sold It At A Gain Of 5 %. If He Had Bought It At 5% Less And Sold It For Re 1 Less, He Would Have Made A Profit Of 10%. The C.p. Of The Article Was?

Let original Cost price is x

Its Selling price = (105/100) * x = 21x/20 

New Cost price  = (95/100) * x  = 19x/20 

New Selling price = (110/100 )* (19x/20 )= 209x/200 

[(21x/20) – (209x/200)] = 1 

=> x = 200.

29. Every Year Before The Festive Season,a Shopkeeper Increases The Price Of The Product By 35% And Then Introduce Two Successive Discount Of 10% And 15% Respectively.what Is Percentage Loss And Percentage Gain?

Let cp= 100,

35 % increase in sp=135

10 % discount in 135((135*10)/100)=13.5

so 1st sp=(135-13.5)=121.5, again 15 % discount in 1st sp((121.5*15)/100)=18.225

2nd sp=(121.5-18.225)=103.275,

so finally cp=100,sp=103.275 ,gain by 3.27%.

30. In A Scheme, A Pack Of Three Soaps With Mrp Rs.45 Is Available For Rs.42. If It Still Gives A Profit Of 5% To The Shopkeeper, Then The Cost Price Of The Pack Is ?

Given M.P=45,S.P=42, Profit = 0.05

Let C.P=x , Then

Profit = (42-x)/x = 0.05

=> x = 40.

31. A Shopkeeper Sells One-third Of His Goods At A Profit Of 10%, Another One-third At A Profit Of 20%, And The Rest At A Loss Of 6%.what Is His Overall Profit Percentage?

Let the shopkeeper buy 300g for Rs.300. Now he sells 100g for Rs.110, another 100g for Rs120, and the rest 100g for Rs94. sir 

Therefore, the total amount he receives = Rs.110 + Rs.120 + Rs.94 = 324. 

Therefore, the shopkeeper spends Rs.300 and gets back Rs.324. 

Therefore, his profit percentage = 24/300×100 % = 8%.

32. By Mixing Two Qualities Of Pulses In The Ratio 2: 3 And Selling The Mixture At The Rate Of Rs 22 Per Kilogram, A Shopkeeper Makes A Profit Of 10 %. If The Cost Of The Smaller Quantity Be Rs 14 Per Kg, The Cost Per Kg Of The Larger Quantity Is?

Cost Price of 5 kg = Rs.(14*2 + x*3) = (28 + 3x).

Sell price of 5 kg = Rs. (22×5) = Rs. 110.

[{110 – (28 + 3x)}/(28 + 3x) ]* 100 =10

[82-3x/28 + 3x]= 1 / 10

820 – 30x = 28 +3x 

33x = 792 

x = 24.

33. What Profit Percent Is Made By Selling An Article At A Certain Price, If By Selling At 2/3rd Of That Price, There Would Be A Loss Of 20%?

SP2 = 2/3 SP1

CP = 100

SP2 = 80

2/3 SP1 = 80

SP1 = 120

100 — 20   => 20%.

34. Ajay Bought 15 Kg Of Dal At The Rate Of Rs 14.50 Per Kg And 10 Kg At The Rate Of Rs 13 Per Kg. He Mixed The Two And Sold The Mixture At The Rate Of Rs 15 Per Kg. What Was His Total Gain In This Transaction?

Cost price of 25 kg = Rs. (15 x 14.50 + 10 x 13) = Rs. 347.50. 

Sell price of 25 kg = Rs. (25 x 15) = Rs. 375. 

profit = Rs. (375 — 347.50) = Rs. 27.50.

35. The Profit Earned By Selling An Article For Rs. 832 Is Equal To The Loss Incurred When The Same Article Is Sold For Rs. 448. What Should Be The Sale Price For Making 50% Profit ?

Let C.P. = Rs. C. 

Then, 832 – C = C – 448

2C = 1280 => C = 640

Required S.P. = 150% of Rs. 640 = 150/100 x 640 = Rs. 960.

36. A Man Buys An Item At Rs. 1200 And Sells It At The Loss Of 20 Percent. Then What Is The Selling Price Of That Item?

Here always remember, when ever x% loss, 

it means S.P. = (100 – x)% of C.P

when ever x% profit,

it means S.P. = (100 + x)% of C.P

So here will be (100 – x)% of C.P.

= 80% of 1200 

= (80/100) * 1200

= 960.

37. ‘a’ Sold An Article To ‘b’ At A Profit Of 20%. ‘b’ Sold The Same Article To ‘c’ At A Loss Of 25% And ‘c’ Sold The Same Article To ‘d’ At A Profit Of 40%. If ‘d’ Paid Rs 252 For The Article, Then Find How Much Did ‘a’ Pay For It?

Let the article costs ‘X’ to A

Cost price of B = 1.2X

Cost price of C = 0.75(1.2X) = 0.9X

Cost price of D = 1.4(0.9X) = 1.26X = 252

Amount paid by A for the article = Rs. 200.

38. A Shopkeeper Fixes The Marked Price Of An Item 35% Above Its Cost Price. The Percentage Of Discount Allowed To Gain 8% Is?

Let the cost price = Rs 100

then, Marked price = Rs 135

Required gain = 8%, 

So Selling price = Rs 108

Discount = 135 – 108 = 27

Discount% = (27/135)*100 = 20%.

1. Why Is It Important To Recycle E-waste?

E-Waste Pollution: 
Electronic waste containing toxic chemicals and metals such as lead, cadmium mercury, which when disposed in landfills gain entry into surrounding soil, groundwater and ultimately end in us. In addition, improper processing of e-waste that causes toxicity. Informal processing of electronic waste in general poses serious health and pollution problems.

Benefits of Recycling Electronic Waste (Above the ground Mining!): 
Electrical waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60 elements can be found in complex electronics. Recycling raw materials from end-of-life electronics is the most effective solution to the growing e-waste problem.

The environmental and social benefits of recycling e-waste: 
Environmental and social benefits of reuse include diminished demand for new products and virgin raw materials (with their own environmental issues); larger quantities of pure water and electricity for associated manufacturing; less packaging per unit; availability of technology to wider swaths of society due to greater affordability of products; and diminished use of landfills.

Prevent e-Waste from going into Landfills: 
When old electronics are thrown into a landfill, all the energy that directly or indirectly goes into making a product is lost. This means than more energy and water is needed to make new products, emitting more greenhouse gases and using more water. Thus landfilling old electronics also wastes the natural resources used to make a product. Some of the materials used in electronic products are extremely rare and are running out fast.

E-Cycling instead of creating from scratch results in huge energy savings: 
Creating secondary raw materials, i.e. e-cycling, results in huge energy savings .For instance, recycling steel into secondary raw material uses 74% less energy than the production of the primary product. Recycled Aluminum uses 95% less, Copper 85% less, Lead 65% less and Plastics 80% less – it’s a win, win, win scenario – we protect precious resources, divert usable materials from landfill and conserve energy all at the same time!

2. Do You Really Know Your Electronics Recycler?

It can be difficult knowing the right questions to ask when investigating potential recycling service providers.  Even professional environmental auditors often do not have the proper training or experience to properly audit an electronics recycling operation in a way that protects their clients’ from data security and environmental issues. Moreover, making sure recyclers continue to perform as promised is very expensive, with even the most careful due diligence sometimes failing to protect your company. The complexity of effectively screening and hiring electronics recyclers leads many companies to award e-waste contracts to service providers with the lowest cost and, the lowest integrity.

Don’t think it can happen to your company?  Here is an example featured in 60 Minutes of a firm pretending to be a responsible recycler but shown to be exporting e-waste to China. Your brand, the security of you data, and your stature as a good corporate citizen are all threatened by recyclers who do not follow clear and transparent standards for handling your old electronics.

3. What Are The Important Points To Remember While Donating Computer Equipment?

If you would rather not dispose of the computer or electronics and want to offer them to people who have a need for the materials, there is the option of donating the equipment to a charity. There are a variety of charities that will take older computer materials and either use it in local facilities or process the items to be shipped overseas for use.

Be aware that many charities may have restrictions on the types of computers and electronics that are donated. Often times there will be a limit on how old the equipment can be as it will be considered antiquated and unsuitable for the charities purposes. While it used to be several years, many now will not take equipment more than a year old. Check with the charity to make sure that your equipment meets their standards. If it does not, then you will need to use a disposal or recycling service mentioned previously.

4. Where Can I Find Drop Off Recycling Centers?

There are a number of drop off locations available to recycling your computers and other IT assets. 

5. Where Can You Recycle Tv?

There are a number of drop off locations available to recycling your Televisions. Since many of the old generation TVs consist of CRT glass, it is even more important to recycle these using certified e-waste recyclers.

6. What Is Crt Glass? Why Is Recycling Crt Glass Different From Regular Glass?

CRTs are the video display components of televisions and computer monitors. The glass inn CRTs typically contains enough lead to require managing it as hazardous waste under certain circumstances. Under the previous regulations, businesses and other organizations that recycle or dispose of CRTs were sometimes unclear about the proper way to recycle or dispose of this equipment. That uncertainty sometimes prevented CRTs from being recycled and reused. EPA is changing CRT waste management requirements to promote additional safe recycling and reuse of CRTs. About 57 million computers and televisions are sold in the United States annually.

7. What Are E-waste Laws? Is It Legal To Dump Computers In Trash Or Landfills?

Many states have passed laws that prohibit throwing out electronics into the garbage. In addition to laws in these states, many cities and counties also have laws dictating the methods of electronic and computer disposal. It is important before throwing out any old computer parts or electronics to check with the appropriate government agencies to determine the proper methods.

The easiest method for determining the proper laws governing the region that you live in is to contact your local waste management company and local governments. Often government web sites will list the e-waste disposal rules under the terms “waste management”, “recycling” or “environmental agency”. Programs for disposal may be free or carry fees depending upon the item being turned in for disposal.

8. What Happens To The E-waste If Not Recycled Through Proper Channels?

Unfortunately, an incredibly small percentage of e-waste is recycled. Even when we take it to a recycling center it’s usually not actually recycled – not in the way most of us think of that term. A small percentage of e-waste is estimated to be sent to recyclers. In the U.S., as little as 11%-14%. The remainder is most often dumped or burned – either in formal landfills and incinerators, or informally dumped or burned. These inappropriate disposal methods for electronic waste fail to reclaim valuable materials or manage the toxic materials safely. In effect, our soil, water and air are easily contaminated. 

An estimated 70-80% of the e-waste that’s given to recyclers is exported to less developed countries. Once there, primitive technologies such as open air burning and riverside acid baths are used to extract a few materials. The rest of the toxic materials are usually dumped. Unlike other countries in the world, the U.S. sends a significant portion of its hazardous e-waste to U.S. prisons to process in less-regulated environments without the worker protections and rights afforded in the private sector. Moreover, such operations amount to government subsidies, undermining the development of responsible private-sector recycling infra-structure and distorting the economics of recyclin.

9. What Are Electronics Manufacturer Recycling Programs?

Many of the larger computer and electronics companies have begun offering recycling programs. Often these programs will take older computer parts in exchange for credits towards the purchase of new equipment from the manufacturer. Other programs may be a simple pickup and recovery service that they charge a small fee for. Be sure to check all of the details regarding the program with the company before using them. Some of the companies will simply refer the customer to the state disposal due to government regulation.

Here is a list of some of the recycling programs and information from various manufacturers:

• Acer Recycling Program
• Apple Recycling Program
• Dell Recycling
• Fujitsu Recycling of Electronic Waste
• Gateway Trade In or Recycle
• HP Product Return and Recycling
• Lenovo Product Recycling
• Sony Trade-In Recycling Program

10. What Gets Recycled From Scrap Electronics?

If managed correctly, the materials that make up old electronics can be recycled safely and securely and converted into new base commodities that can be put back into productive use in a new device or product. Common materials include base ferrous metals (steel), non ferrous metals such as aluminum, lead and copper, precious metals such as gold, silver and palladium, many families of plastics, glass, and rubber. Hazardous materials can also be safely recovered and recycled including such items as mercury or lead, heavy metals such as lithium and cadmium found in batteries, ink/toner and even ethylene glycol as a coolant.

11. What Is The Environmental Impact If Electronics Are Not Disposed Of Correctly?

E-waste contains valuable non-renewable resources. By reclaiming these materials for reuse, we reduce the environmental impact and energy consumption of mining and processing, and prolong their availability to future generations. What’s more, without best practices in E-waste disposal, highly toxic elements such as mercury, lead, lithium and cadmium find their way into landfills or are shipped to developing countries where they are burned, dumped, or smashed apart by impoverished workers and children without proper protection, causing massive environmental damage and endangering human lives.

12. Why Should E-waste Be Handled Properly? Is It Toxic?

Some of the components of e-waste contain materials such as lead, cadmium, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), etched chemicals, brominated flame retardants which are hazardous in nature. Therefore e-waste should be handled in an environment-friendly manner to prevent this hazardous material polluting the environment.

E-waste as such is not toxic. However, processing of e-waste to recover valuable materials such as lead, copper and gold is hazardous. Therefore a careful environmentally sound recovery process is required for recycling the e-waste.

13. How To Dispose The E-waste?

E-wastes should not be given to unauthorized vendors / buyers. The respective pollution control boards in different states authorize agencies to collect e-waste from generators. The dealers should have valid consent and authorization. This authorization is given based on the competency of the recycler, infrastructure and other factors as decided by the regulatory authorities.

14. How Can I Ensure That My Company’s Old Electronics Are Disposed Of Securely And Ethically?

Recyclers vary in their practices and you must decide which electronics recyclers can best meet your needs in terms of minimizing your environmental liability and information risk. As a minimum, you should seek out companies that are third-party certified to handle used electronics and that follow rigorous environmental standards.

However, to fully protect against data loss, environmental liability and damage to your corporate reputation, you should only use a recycler who will guarantee in writing the complete destruction of all data-carrying device components and all serial numbers, equipment identifiers and corporate logos, and who adheres to the highest standards of environmental stewardship.

15. Aren’t All E-waste Recyclers More Or Less The Same?

There is certainly overlap in the services offered by many E-waste recycling companies, but there are vast differences in the degree of rigour applied both in the security offered to clients concerned about leakage of confidential data and environmental stewardship.

The building of ARTEX Environmental Corporation represents a significant stride forward in the secure and ethical recycling of electronic waste in North America. In an industry in which data and device security often lacks rigour and the dumping of toxic E-waste in developing countries threatens people, the environment and the reputations of its original owners, ARTEX has established itself as a highly secure, highly ethical E-waste recycler, founded on the principles of complete data and device destruction and zero E-waste to landfill.

16. What Happens To The Hazardous Materials Removed From Electronics During The Recycling Process?

It is well known that old electronics contain hazardous materials such as lead and mercury which can cause health issues and environmental damage if not properly recycled or disposed.  At ARTEX, the health and safety of our personnel and the environment is a priority and therefore we do not shred hazardous materials.  These elements are carefully removed from all devices prior to shredding the remaining device. From this point, ethically recycling all components of old electronics is paramount and therefore we take particular care in determining the right recycling downstream partner for each component we remove from devices. ARTEX has a rigorous auditing system to evaluate all of our downstream partners to ensure their method of operation meets our standards for environmental sustainability. 

Once the hazardous element is removed, it is properly stored for preservation as well as protection for our personnel, and then transported to an audited downstream partner.  Once the material arrives at our downstream partner’s facility, it will be further broken down in an environmentally sustainable manner.  Once broken down into a usable form, the material will be manufactured into new materials.  Lead, for example, can be used to create paint for road lines; mercury can be used in the development of new fluorescent lighting.

1. What Is Digital Logic?

Digital logic is the representation of signals and sequences of a digital circuit through numbers. It is the basis for digital computing and provides a fundamental understanding on how circuits and hardware communicate within a computer.

2. What Is Combinational Logic?

The term combinational logic refers to circuitry that transforms bits, as opposed to storing bits. For example, the ALU portion of a CPU transforms data, e.g. transforming two input word-sized bit strings into an output which is the sum of the two inputs.

3. Explain Sequential Logic?

Sequential logic stores data. Registers in a CPU, RAM and so on store data.

4. Explain Computer Architecture?

A modern meaning of the term computer architecture covers three aspects of computer design:

• instruction set architecture.
• computer organization.
• computer hardware.

5. Explain Instruction Set Architecture?

Instruction Set Architecture – ISA refers to the actual programmer-visible machine interface such as instruction set, registers, memory organization and exception handling. Two main approaches: RISC and CISC architectures.‰

A computer organization and computer hardware are two components of the implementation of a machine. ‰ Computer organization includes the high-level aspects of a design, such as the memory system, the bus structure, and the design of the internal CPU (where arithmetic, logic, branching and data transfers are implemented).‰

Computer hardware refers to the specifics of a machine, included the detailed logic design and the packaging technology of the machine.‰ For many years the interaction between ISA and implementations was believed to be small, and implementation issues were not a major focus in designing instruction set architecture. ‰

In the 1980’s, it becomes clear that both the difficulty and inefficiency of pipelining could be increased by instruction set architecture complications.

6. What Are The Tasks Of Computer Architects?

Tasks of Computer Architects ‰: Computer architects must design a computer to meet functional requirements as well as price, power, and performance goals. Often, they also have to determine what the functional requirements are, which can be a major task. ‰ Once a set of functional requirements has been established, the architect must try to optimize the design. Here are three major application areas and their main requirements: 

Desktop computers: focus on optimizing costperformance as measured by a single user, with little regard for program size or power consumption.

Server computers: focus on availability, scalability,and throughput cost-performance.

Embedded computers : driven by price and often power issues, plus code size is important.

7. What Are The Developments Of Computer Design?

Developments in Computer Design
: During the first 25 years of electronic computers both forces, technology and innovations in computer design made major contributions. ‰ Then, during the 1970’s, computer designers were largely dependent upon integrated circuit technology, with roughly 35% growth per year in processor performance.

In the last 20 year, the combination of innovations in computer design and improvements in technology has led sustained growth in performance at an annual rate of over 55%. In this period, the main source of innovations in computer design has come from RISCstyle pipelined processors.

8. Explain Risc Architecture?

RISC Architecture ‰:  
After 1985, any computer announced has been of RISC architecture. RISC designers focused on two critical performance techniques in computer design:  the exploitation of instruction-level  the exploitation of instruction level parallelism, first through pipelining and later through multiple instruction issue,  the use of cache, first in simple forms and later using sophisticated organizations and optimizations.

9. What Are The Characteristics Of Risc Isa?

RISC ISA Characteristics 

• All operations on data apply to data in registers and typically change the entire register; ‰
• The only operations that affect memory are load and store operations that move data from memory to a register or to memory from a register, respectively; 
• ‰A small number of memory addressing modes;
• The instruction formats are few in number with all instructions typically being one size;
• Large number of registers; ‰

These simple properties lead to dramatic simplifications in the implementation of advanced pipelining techniques, which is why RISC architecture instruction sets were designed this way.

10. What Is The Main Example Of Cisc Architecture Processor?

Intel IA-32 processors (in over 90% computers). ‰ Intel IA-32 processors, from 80386 processor in early 80’s to Pentium IV today, and the next one to be introduced this or next year, are of CISC architecture. All Intel IA-32 processors are having as a base the Identical instruction set architecture designed in early 1980’s.

11. What Does Mips Stand For?

Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages. MIPS processor is one of the first RISC processors. Again, all processors announced after 1985 have been of RISC architecture.

12. Explain The Combinational Logic Design Process?

Combinational Logic Design Process : 

• Create truth table from specification
• Generate K-maps & obtain logic equations
• Draw logic diagram (sharing common gates)
• Simulate circuit for design verification
• Debug & fix problems when output is incorrect
• Check truth table against K-map population
• Check K-map groups against logic equation product terms
• Check logic equations against schematic
• Circuit optimization for area and/or performance
• Analyze verified circuit for optimization metric

•G, G_IO, G_del, P_del

• Use Boolean postulates & theorems
• Re -simulate & verify optimized design

13. What Are The Design Verification Guidelines?

Design Verification Guidelines : 

• Use all audits and analysis aids possible to help find potential design bugs 
• Investigate and correct all errors/warnings
• Simulate thoroughly but use stimuli that “eat their way into the design” testing one function at a time
• more important for complex circuits
• When circuit doesn’t work, see what works and what doesn’t to narrow down the search space for the problem
• Which outputs work
• Which outputs fail and under what conditions 
• Monitor lots of internal nodes
• Additional simulations (with different vectors) can be helpful
• Remember “debugging is just solving out a puzzle”
• Also “if something doesn’t look right, stop and check it out”
• Don’t overlook potential bugs
• Always re-run audits and simulation after correcting any problem (or after any changes)
• Another bug could be lurking, or
• The fix may have messed up something else

14. What Are Sequential Logic Design Steps?

Sequential Logic Design Steps : 

• Derive circuit state diagram from design specs 
• Create state table
• Choose flip-flops (D, T, SR, JK)
• Create circuit excitation table
• use flip-flop excitation tables
• Construct K-maps for: 
• flip-flop inputs
• primary outputs
• Obtain minimized SOP equations
• Draw logic diagram
• Simulate to verify design & debug as needed
• Perform circuit analysis & logic optimization

15. Explain About Program Counter (pc)?

• The program counter is another specialized register.
• It keeps track of the execution of a program.
• It contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed.
• During the execution of an instruction, the contents of of the PC are updated to correspond to the address of the next instruction to be executed.
• It is customary to say that PC points to the next instruction that is to be fetched from the memory. 

16. What Are Memory Address Register (mar) & Memory Data Register (mdr)?

• These two registers facilitate communication with the memory.
• The MAR holds the address of the location to be accessed.
• The MDR contains the data to be written into or read out of the addressed location.

17. Explain The Operating Steps For Program Execution?

Operating steps for Program execution :

• Programs are stored in the memory through the input unit. 
• Execution of the program starts when the PC is set to point to the first instruction of the program.
• The contents of the PC are transferred to the MAR and a Read control signal is sent to the memory.
• After the time required to access the memory elapses, the addressed word (in this case, the first instruction of the program) is read out of the memory and loaded into the MDR.  Next, the contents of the MDR are transferred to the IR .
• At this point, the instruction is ready to be decoded and executed. 
• If the instruction involves an operation to be performed by the ALU, it is necessary to obtain the required operands.
• If an operand resides in memory ( it could also be in a generalpurpose register in the processor), it has to be fetched by sending its address to the MAR and initiating a Read cycle. When the operand has been read from the memory into the MDR, it is is transferred from the MDR to the ALU.
• After one or more operands are fetched in this way, the ALU can perform the desired operation.
• If the result of the operation is to be stored in the memory, then the result is sent to the MDR.
• The address of the location where the result is to be stored is sent to the MAR, and a write cycle is initiated. At some point during the execution of the current instruction, the contents of the PC are incremented so that the PC points to the next instruction to be executed.
• Thus, as soon as the execution of the current instruction is completed, a new instruction fetch may be started. 
• In addition to transferring data between the memory and the processor, the computer accepts data from input devices and sends data to output devices. Thus, some machine instructions with the ability to handle I/O transfers are provided. 

18. What Is A Interrupt Service Routine?

• Normal execution of a programs may be preempted if some device requires urgent servicing.
• For example, a monitoring device in a computer-controlled industrial process may detect a dangerous condition.  In order to deal with the situation immediately, the normal execution of the current program must be interrupted.  To do this, the device raises an interrupt signal.
• An interrupt is a request from an I/O device for service by the processor.  The processor provides the requested service by executing an appropriate interrupt-service routine. Because such diversions may alter the internal state of the processor, its state must be saved in the memory locations before servicing the interrupt.
• Normally, the contents of the PC, the general registers, and some control information are stored in memory.
• When the interrupt service routine is completed, the state of the processor is restored so that the interrupted program may continue. 

19. Discuss Various Parameters For Improving The Performance Of A Computer.

The most important measure of the performance of a computer is how quickly it can execute a programs.The speed with which a computer executes programs is affected by the design of its hardware and its machine language instructions.

• Elapsed time:
• The total time required to execute a program .
• This elapsed time is a measure of the performance of the entire computer system.
• It is affected by the speed of the processor, the disk and the printer. 
• Processor time:
• Here we have to consider only those periods of the elapsed time, during which the processor is active.
• The sum of these periods is called processor time.
• The processor time depends on the hardware involved in the execution of individual machine instructions.
• Cache memory: 
• The processor and a relatively small cache memory can be fabricated on a single IC chip.
• The internal speed of performing the basic steps of instruction processing on such chips is very high and considerably faster than the speed at which instructions and data can be fetched from the main memory. 
• A program will be executed faster if the movement of instructions and data between the main memory and processor is minimized, which is achieved by using the cache. 

20. Explain Various Components Of System Software.

Compiler : 
A system software program which translates the highlevel language program into a suitable machine language program.

Text editor:
Another important system program that all programmers use is a text editor. It is used for entering and editing application programs. The user of this program interactively execute commands that allow statements of a source program entered at a keyboard to be accumulated in a file.

Operating system (OS) : 
It is a key system software component. This is a large program, or actually a collection of routines , that is used to control the sharing of and interaction among various computer units as they execute application programs. The OS routines perform the tasks required to assign computer resources to individual application programs. These tasks include assigning memory to program and data files, moving data between memory and disk units, and handling I/O operations. 

21. Explain The Role Of System Software In A Computer.

• System software is responsible for the coordination of all activities in a computing system.
• System software is a collection of programs that are executed as needed to perform functions such as
• Receiving and interpreting user commands.
• Entering and editing application programs and storing them as files in secondary storage devices.
• Managing the storage and retrieval of files in secondary storage devices.  
• Running standard application programs such as word processors, spread sheets, or games, with data supplied by the user.
• Controlling I/O units to receive input information and produce output results.
• Translating programs from high level language to low level language. 
• Linking and running user-written application programs with existing standard library routines, such as numerical computation packages. 

22. Explain How Timing Differences Are Smoothed Out Among Processors, Memories And I/o Devices.

• The devices connected to a bus vary widely in their speed of operation. 
• Electro mechanical devices such as key board and printers are relatively slow.
• Others like magnetic or optical disks, are considerably faster.
• Memory and processor units operate at electronic speeds.

• A common approach to smooth out the timing differences is to include buffer registers with the devices to hold the information during transfers.
• They prevent a high speed processor from being locked to a slow I/O device during a sequence of data transfers. This allows the processor to switch rapidly from one device to another, interweaving its process activity with data transfers involving several I/O devices.
• Thus, buffer registers smooth out timing differences among processors, memories and I/O devices.