Category: Physics Notes PPT

A periscope is an instrument for observation around or through an object in presence of an obstacle or condition that prevents generally the direct line-of-sight observation from an observer’s current position. In its simplest form, it generally consists of an outer case with the mirrors at each end set parallel to each other at the angle of  45°. This is said to be a form of periscope with the addition of two simple lenses that are generally said to be served for observation purposes in the trenches during World War I. The military personnel are also said to use periscopes in some gun turrets and in armoured vehicles.

Uses of Periscopes

More complex periscopes are generally using the prisms or advanced fibre optics instead of mirrors and providing magnification required on submarines and in various fields of science. Overall, we can conclude that the design of the classical submarine periscope is very simple, that is two telescopes pointed at each other. If the two telescopes that we have seen have different individual magnification, the difference which is between them causes an overall magnification or reduction.

History of Periscope

In 1647 the one and only Johannes Hevelius has described in his early periscope which he called a “polemoscope” with lenses, in his work ‘Selenographia’, Sive Lunae description Selenography, or an account of the Moon. Hevelius saw military applications for his invention.

In 1902 Sir Simon Lake generally used periscopes in his submarines. Sir Howard Grubb generally is said to have perfected the device in World War I. Morgan Robertson that is from 1861–1915 claimed to have tried to patent the periscope. The periscopes were in some cases fixed to rifles that served in World War I from 1914–1918 to enable soldiers to see over the tops of trenches thus avoiding exposure to enemy fire especially from snipers. Some of them also allowed estimating the distance to a target as they were designed as stereoscopic rangefinders.

Periscopes generally allow a submarine when submerged at a relatively shallow depth to search visually for nearby targets and threats on the surface of the water and in the air. We can say that when not in use then a submarine’s periscope retracts into the hull. A submarine commander in tactical conditions must exercise discretion when using his periscope since it creates a visible wake and may also become detectable by radar which is giving away the submarine’s position.

In 1861-65, Marie-Davey generally built a simple fixed naval periscope using mirrors. Sir Thomas H. Doughty of the US Navy which was later said to be invented a prismatic version that is said to be for use in the American Civil War of 1861–65.

Working of Periscope

Tanks and armoured vehicles that use periscopes enable drivers or tank commanders and other vehicle occupants to inspect their situation through the vehicle roof. Periscopes generally permit view outside of the vehicle without needing to cut these weaker vision openings in the front and side armour protecting the vehicle and occupants.

A proctoscope is a related periscopic vision device designed to provide a window in an armoured plate similar to a direct vision slit.  A compact periscope can be said as that it is inside the protector scope which generally allows the vision to be blanked off with the spaced armoured plate. So we can say that this prevents a potential ingress that is a point for small arms fire which is with only a small difference that is in the vision height but still it requires the armour to be cut.

In the context of all those things which we have learnt of armoured fighting vehicles such as tanks, a periscopic vision device may also be referred to as an episcope. In this context, we can say that a periscope refers to a device that can rotate to provide a wider field of view or at times it is fixed into an assembly that can that is while an episcope is fixed into position.

An electric field that we are already aware of is said to be an elegant way of characterizing the electrical environment of a system of charges. The electric field said to be at any point in space around a system of charges represents the force of a unit positive test charge which generally would experience if placed at that point. The term field that we have learned in the subject in physics generally refers to a quantity defined at every point in space and may vary from point to point.

It’s the physical field that surrounds charged particles and has an effect on all other charged particles in the field, either attracting them or repelling them. 

Electric fields are produced by electric charges or by magnetic fields that vary over time. The electric field, for example, is the attractive force that holds the atomic nucleus and electrons together in atoms in atomic physics and chemistry.

Additionally, it is the force that is responsible for the chemical bonding of atoms to form molecules.

This means that the electric field around a system of charges shows how much force a positive test charge would get if it were placed there. 

Most of the time, the term field means something that is the same at every point in space and can change from one place to another. 

Because force is a vector, the electric field is a vector field, which means it moves in the same direction.

Detailed Description of Electric Field

The electric field which we have seen is said to be defined at each point in space as the force per unit charge that would be experienced by a vanishingly small positive test charge held at that point. The vector fields of this form are sometimes referred to as force fields. This is said to be the basis for the law of Coulomb’s which states that for stationary charges the electric field varies with the source charge and is said to be inverse with the square of the distance from the source. 

This means that if the source the charge which was doubled then the electric field would double and after doubling we see that if we move twice as far away from the source the field at that point would be only one-quarter its original strength.

The electric field w can be visualized with a set of lines whose direction at each point is the same as the field’s, a concept introduced by Michael Faraday whose term ‘lines of force’ is still sometimes used. Then we can see that the field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would follow as it is forced to move within the field that is said to be similar to trajectories that masses follow within a gravitational field.

Physical Significance of Electric Field

Under Static Condition

An electric field describes the electrical environment around a system of charges when they are in a stable state. It is defined at each location and differs from one to the next.

Non-Static Electromagnetic Condition

The accelerated motion of the charge causes electromagnetic waves to travel with a speed of c and exert a force on another charge in this situation. The transport of energy is linked to time-dependent magnetic and electric fields.

The electric field is a feature of a charging system that is independent of the test charge. Charge interaction is electromagnetic.

When dealing with time-dependent electromagnetic phenomena, the actual physical signs of the electric field appear.

Consider the accelerated motion of two distant charges, q1 and q2. The effect of q1 motion on q2 does not appear immediately. Between the effect and the cause, there will be a time delay. The electric field accounts for this time delay as follows: Electromagnetic waves are produced by q1’s accelerated velocity. These waves travel at c, reaching the charge q2 and exerting a force on it. This explains the time difference.

Electric and magnetic fields are viewed as tangible entities, not just mathematical constructions, even though they can only be identified through their effects (forces) on charges. 

They have their dynamics, in other words, they evolve according to their own set of rules. 

They also can carry energy. As a result, a source of time-dependent electromagnetic fields that are turned on and off briefly leaves energy-carrying back-propagating electromagnetic fields. 

Faraday was the first to establish the concept of the field, which is now one of the most important concepts in physics.

Conclusion

This is all about the significance of an electric field in different conditions. Follow the concepts clearly and understand how an electric field behaves in different conditions. 

We see that the charges occurring in a molecule are oscillating then we say that along the y-axis it will not radiate along the y-axis. Therefore here we conclude that  at 90° away from the beam direction the scatter which is by the light is linearly polarized. This is concluded to cause the light which generally undergoes Rayleigh scattering from the blue sky to be partially polarized.

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How Sunlight is Polarised

The light which is said to be an unpolarized light that is said to be passing through a fluid is scattered that is the scattered light which is being partially or completely plane polarized. For the light to get the effect of scattering by particles of comparable size to the wavelength of the light we can say that this process is known as  rayleigh scattering. The wavelength that is said to be generally dependent on this type of scattering is responsible for blue skies and red sunsets.

the light which is said to be the unpolarized white light which is from a slide projector enters a fish tank of very slightly milky water. Some of the waves which are known as the electromagnetic waves impinging on the colloidal particles and molecules in the water are said to be absorbed and re-radiated. The horizontal component that we have seen here is we can say of the polarization decreasing as cos2θ that is where θ is the scattering angle. We can hear see that the maximum scattered intensity is perpendicular to the plane, that is we can say of oscillation of the molecule which is  where it is also totally plane polarized, θ=90°. At the angles which are the other angles the light is partially plane polarized.

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To show this whole phenomenon we can say that the audience generally observes the tank at right angles to the initial direction which is the propagation of the light. A mirror which is said to be angled over the tank generally allows them to see scattered light emerging from two surfaces which are said to be perpendicular to each other we can easily observe it in the figure . The rotating which occurs in the Polaroid 90° blocks the light from the top of the tank but now we can say that the scattered light from the side of the tank reappears. Alternatively here we will say that or suppose that let the scattering process polarize an unpolarized beam from the slide projector and let the Polaroid sheet be the analyzer .

Rayleigh the phenomenon which is of the scattering has a wavelength dependence of 1/(λ4) so we can say that it generally affects blue light much more strongly than red. By adding the tank which is of milk to the tank we increase the scattering phenomenon  the milky water begins to develop a bluish tint and the unscattered beam reddish.

Polarisation by Refraction

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The is the kind of action that generally takes place in a 5 gallon fish tank. The mirror that is said to be 1m × 0.75m is hinged and its base can be clamped to a cart so we can say that the mirror then leans on the tank. The mirror which generally should be angled to give the center rows that is said to be of the audience which is of the optimum view of the upper surface of the tank so we can say that  this puts it at over 45° and unfortunately we can say that the view is not perfect for the front and back of the hall. Provide there is a beaker of milk and a pipette which is to add milk to the tank. The water which generally may be dirty enough initially to scatter well without adding milk. For a slide projector which we generally use a Beseler Slide King as it has a powerful 1000W bulb and along with that it holds a load with a 5cm circular aperture slide to simulate the Sun. It can also be said that it sit on the cart too but leaves a small distance between it and the tank so you can insert the Polaroid. The unscattered light that should generally fall onto a projection screen that is several meters ahead of the cart should be angled so that the audience can see the spot.

So here we need to be a  bit careful not to add too much milk that is as multiple scattering which will occur and wash out the color effect as well as the polarization. The symbol which is said to be denoted as λ-4 dependence is only valid if the scattering objects are smaller or comparable in size to the wavelength of the light. So it generally works for nitrogen and oxygen molecules but this is not for water droplets which are much larger than the symbol which is λ and scatter all colors equally so hence we can say that the clouds are white.

Polarisation by Scattering

A light wave which is also said to be an electromagnetic wave that travels through the vacuum of outer space. The waves which are of light are produced by vibrating electric charges. 

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The transverse nature of an electromagnetic wave is said to be quite different from any other type of wave that has been discussed in The Physics Classroom Tutorial.  So now Let’s here suppose that we use the customary slinky to model the behavior of an electromagnetic wave. An electromagnetic wave is said to travel towards us and  then we would observe the vibrations of the slinky occurring in more than one plane of vibration. 

Based on the direction of current flowing through the circuit, it is differentiated in two types. One is Alternating current and another is Direct current. When an electric current reverses its direction periodically while flowing through an electric circuit is called Alternating Current (AC). On the other hand, when current flows in only one direction is known as Direct current (DC).

The major advantage of alternating current is that AC voltages can be easily transformed from higher to lower voltage levels and vice-versa. Due to this virtue, high voltage power from power stations can be reduced to a safer voltage for domestic use. Only Alternating current is compatible with capacitors and inductors. By using them within the Alternating current circuits, the flow of electricity can be turned. This property helps tune the radio stations. Because of these reasons, AC electricity is most preferred for home appliances.

 

Power Consumed in an AC Circuit

An electric circuit produces power which is given by the expression, P= I V.

Where, I – the current flowing through the circuit and

V- Voltage across it.

AC circuits always offer reactance, therefore there are two components of power, a power component because of the magnetic field and another because of the electric field. The average power absorbed by the circuit becomes the sum of power stored and returned through a complete one cycle. Thus, the average power consumed by the circuit will be the instantaneous power within one cycle.

 

Power Factor

• The power factor of an alternating current is defined as the ratio of the true power flowing through the circuit to the apparent power present in the circuit. 

• It is usually in the interval of -1 to 1 and is dimensionless.

Power Factor = [frac{ text {True power}}{text{Apparent power}}]

Also, cosΦ = [frac{R}{Z}]

R- resistance in the circuit

Z- impedance of the circuit.

Definition of Power in AC Circuit

The rate of doing work or the amount of energy transferred by a circuit per unit time is known as power in AC circuits. It is used to calculate the total power required to supply a load. Power factor: In an AC circuit, the power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S). The PF can be expressed in percent or decimal form.

The Importance of Power in an AC Circuit 

The power in an AC circuit is very important as it determines the amount of current that flows through the circuit and hence, the size of the wire required. The voltage and current waveforms are also affected by the power factor. A low PF means that a lot of energy is being wasted in the form of heat due to poor utilization of electricity. This can cause overheating and failure of electrical equipment.

The Importance of the Power Factor

The power factor is very important as it determines the amount of current that flows through the circuit and hence, the size of the wire required. The voltage and current waveforms are also affected by this factor. A low PF means that a lot of energy is being wasted in the form of heat due to poor utilization of electricity which can cause overheating and failure of electrical equipment.

Here are Some Tips to Study the Power in AC Circuit

1. Knowing how to solve simple AC circuit problems helps you learn more about PF and its applications in real-life situations. Some examples include finding the reactive watts, total watts, current, and voltage for a given power factor. These examples can help you learn more about PF and its applications in real-life situations. Here are some tips to study the Power Factor:

2. Know the basics- It is important to know the basics of an AC circuit before studying the power factor. So that, you can easily understand the importance and applications of the power factor.  Solve simple problems- Knowing how to solve simple AC circuit problems helps you learn more about PF and its applications in real-life situations. Some examples include finding reactive watts, total watts current, or voltage for a given power factor. Learn from textbooks – Textbooks contain detailed information on formulas along with solved examples.

3. Practice more problems- Practicing a lot of examples is one of the most effective ways to learn and understand the concept of the power factor which will help you to use the power factor in real-life problems.

4. Understanding and applying PF concepts is an important part of learning more about electrical equipment and devices that implement it.

5. Studying examples from textbooks along with practicing lots of problems helps one learn quickly as well as understand PF better which ensures correct usage in real-life situations.

6. Appear for mock tests- Mock tests help you understand where you stand with the concept of power factor. Last but not least, appearing for mock tests gives one an idea about how much they have learned about power factors and what all they need to focus on.

7. Learn the rules- It is important to learn the rules of the power factor before solving any problem.

Fun Facts

• Ohm’s law for the RMS value of an alternating current is calculated by dividing the RMS voltage by the impedance.

• The average power delivered to an LCR circuit varies with the phase angle.

We know that fluid mechanics is the study of forces and flow within the fluid; however, we must also know what fluid is.

 

Well! The fluid is basically a name given to the substance that flows on being subjected to an external force. Liquids and gases both are fluids. One should also know that fluids follow the law of inertia and they are shapeless, which means that they take the shape of a container in which they are kept. 

 

So, we will be studying its mechanics, properties, and a lot of other things. 

 

Properties of Fluid

We can find various properties of fluids because each fluid has its own composition and specific specialties, and much more, so let’s discuss these in detail:

We know that fluid tends to remain at rest unless it is forced to flow which means according to Newton’s first law of motion or the law of inertia, the fluid can be studied under the scope of kinematics. Wherein velocity and acceleration are the key parameters to describe the fluid in motion.

If we talk about fluid, they do have stored potential energy and when they are forced to flow, their energy transforms to kinetic energy, and the molecules inside the fluid set into motion, which in turn, sets fluid into motion. 

 

However, fluid-like honey with higher density during winters is placed under the sunlight and gets into a molten state. The molten stage of honey allows its quickening flow. 

It means on increasing the temperature, the density decreases, and the kinetic energy of molecules increases.

 

So, the factors like temperature, density, pressure, entropy, enthalpy decide the flow of fluid. 

In Chemistry, there are certain chemical compounds that we deal with. To determine many attributes like the type of reaction that occurs, molality, and molarity, we need to know what kind of compound (fluid) formation occurs. So, by knowing their color and odor, we can determine the compound so formed. That’s why we say that fluids have physical properties like color and odor. 

 

Physical Properties of Fluids

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In this context, we will discuss the physical properties of fluids with their description and related diagrams:

If we talk about density, we can think of emulsions and gels. An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that don’t mix such as butter, yolk.  Another one is a gel, a gel is a polymer network formed through the physical aggregation of polymer chains, caused by hydrogen bonds, crystallization, helix formation, complexation. For example, hair gels, face wash, etc.

 

Now, comparing these two, we find that gel is denser than emulsion as the gel is partially solid, while emulsions are formed by a mixture of liquids.

 

The density is denoted by the symbol ρ. The formula for density is mass per unit volume and its unit in MKS and CGS forms are as follows:

 

MKS unit: kgm⁻³

 

CGS unit: gcm⁻³

A unit volume of fluid possesses some weight and that weight is the specific weight. As we can see the term ‘weight’ so obviously is a gravity-dependent physical quantity. 

 

The specific weight is denoted by a small letter ‘w’. 

 

The formula for specific weight is Mass/Volume. The specific weight (specific force of gravity or mg) for water is 9.8 Nm⁻³.

As we discussed in the above context, fluid is a temperature-dependent quantity. If we raise the temperature of honey during winters, it will come out of the jar with the flow. It means the interatomic force of attraction between the molecules decreases and the molecules gain kinetic energy because of which we get the easy outcome of the solidified honey. 

 

The graph for the temperature of a gas and liquid (fluid) is as follows:

We see that in an airfoil (So, here airfoil is nothing but the fluid) there is a pressure difference in the above and the below layer.  because of which the movement occurs. This phenomenon is seen in airplane flight (aerodynamics). 

 

The pressure is something that occurs by the action of force on a unit area, which is denoted by a symbol ‘P’, its formula is Force/Area. It is measured in Nm-2.

The reciprocal of density is the specific volume. It is given by Volume/Mass. It is denoted by ‘v’ and measured in the following units:

 

MKS unit: m³kg⁻¹

 

CGS unit: cm³g⁻¹

 

Properties of Fluid Mechanics 

Fluid mechanics is the phenomenon and an important branch of Physics that deals with two properties of fluids, i.e., the fluid at rest (hydrostatic) and that of in motion or a flow (hydrodynamics). 

 

So, basically, fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that is concerned with the mechanics of fluids viz: liquids, gases, and plasmas(the fourth state of matter) and the forces subjected to these.

 

We find applications of fluid mechanics in a wide range of disciplines including the following:

• Mechanical engineering

• Civil engineering

• Chemical engineering

• Biochemical engineering

• Geophysics

• Oceanography

• Meteorology

• Astrophysics

• Biology

A Short Description on Unique Properties of Fluid

As we all know, matters in nature exist in three states namely solid, liquid and gas. Solids are rigid physical objects with very strong interatomic bonds. They possess a definite shape and require very high temperatures to melt or change into liquid form and gaseous form or vapourize. Contrastingly, liquid and gas do not have a definite shape and are known as fluids. They deform easily because the interatomic forces are relatively weaker than that present in the solids. Because of this condition matters in this state show very special characteristics and are defined in 5 properties as density or specific density, specific weight or weight density, specific volume, specific gravity,  and viscosity. Specific density is the same as the density of solid-state matters. It is defined as the quantity of mass per unit volume of the liquid. It changes with the temperature and pressure of the fluid.  

For example, the density of water is 1000 liter per meter cube volume of the liquid and it is highest at 4 degrees celsius. The density of liquid changes less in relation to the change of density of gases with the change of temperature. The second property is the specific weight or weight density of any fluid. It is the quantity of weight exerted per unit volume of the fluid. The third property is specific gravity. It is the unit density per unit volume of the fluid. It is also known as the relative density. To compare the specific gravity of all liquids the density of water is taken as standard. Likewise to compare the specific g
ravity of gaseous substances the density of air in the environment is taken as standard. The other property of fluids is viscosity which is experienced when fluid is inflow. The atomic particles are connected to each other by a force of interatomic attraction. So when a fluid flows remaining under the influence of gravity then it differentiates into different layers one over another.  The resistance created by the atoms of the lower layers against the atoms of the upper layer of the fluid in motion is known as viscosity.

Many theories were proposed before the actual discovery of the effects of light. Though the light has been in existence since the existence of the sun, the effects of light were not discovered much later. These theories explain the properties of light and how light transmits. Some of the most popular theories on light are discussed below.

Corpuscular Theory: This theory was given in the seventeenth century by Sir Isaac Newton, which states that light emitted by luminous objects consists of tiny particles of matter called corpuscles. This corpuscle when hit the surface, each particle is reflected back. The theory states that the velocity of light changes with the change in density of the medium. This theory could explain three main phenomena of light: the reflection, refraction, and rectilinear propagation of light.

Wave Theory: This theory was discovered by Christian Huygens in the seventeenth century. It states that light is emitted in a series of waves that spread out from a light source in all directions. These waves are not affected by gravity. According to this theory, light waves are mechanical and transverse in nature. This theory successfully explains the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, and diffraction phenomena of light.

According to Newton’s theory, light travelling from air to water will increase the speed, while light entering from air to water will decrease the speed. Huygens disagreed with newton’s theory and said that light travelling from air to water will decrease the speed, and vice versa. Huygens’s theory was proved to be correct later on. Around 100 years later, Thomas Young completely disproved the corpuscular theory by showing that light waves can interfere with each other.

Electromagnetic Wave Theory: This theory was discovered in the nineteenth century by James Maxwell, He proposed that light waves do not require any medium for transmission.  Light waves possess both electrical and magnetic properties and can travel through a vacuum. At any instant of time electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of light. The electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave. At every point in the wave at a given point of time, the electric and magnetic field strengths are equal. The velocity of the waves depends on the electric and magnetic properties of the medium.

Quantum Theory: The quantum theory of light was proposed by Einstein, It states that light travels in bundles of energy, and each bundle is known as a photon. Each photon carries a quantity of energy equal to the product of the frequency of vibration of that photon and Planck’s constant. 

Wave Theory of Light

Diffraction and interference are some of the behaviours of waves. Maxwell proposed that light is an electromagnetic wave that travels at the speed of light through space. The light frequency is related to its wavelength according to the following relation.

Particle Behaviour of Light

In the Photoelectric experiment, the electron is emitted by the metal with a particular kinetic energy.

There exists a critical frequency for every metal, lower than which no electrons are emitted. This describes that the kinetic energy equals the light frequency times a constant, known as Planck’s Constant.

[ E_{photon} = hν ]

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Wave-Particle Duality of Light

The quantum theory of light was given by Einstein, which describes matter, and light consists of minute particles that have properties of waves associated with them. Light consists of particles known as photons and matter are made up of particles called protons, electrons, and neutrons. When all the theories are put together, it can be concluded that light is a particle with wave behaviour. So light is dual in nature.  

Basis of Modern Physics on Quantum Theory of Light

Modern physics is wholly based on quantum theory as it explains the nature and behaviour of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels. Quantum physics and quantum mechanics are terms used to describe the nature and behaviour of matter and energy at that level. Quantum computing, which employs quantum theory to dramatically boost computing capabilities beyond what is conceivable with today’s classical computers, has attracted major funding from several countries.

The German Physical Society accepted physicist Max Planck’s quantum theory in 1900. Planck wanted to know why, when a glowing body’s temperature rises, the colour of its radiation changes from red to orange to blue. He discovered the solution to his query by supposing that energy existed in discrete units, similar to how matter did, rather than just as a steady electromagnetic wave, as had previously been supposed, and was thus quantifiable. Quantum theory began with the existence of these units as its first premise.

To express these discrete units of energy, Planck devised a mathematical equation including a figure, which he dubbed quanta. Planck discovered that at certain discrete temperature levels (precise multiples of a basic minimum value), energy from a luminous body will occupy different sections of the colour spectrum, as explained by the equation. 

Planck anticipated that the discovery of quanta would lead to the development of a theory, but their very existence implied a fundamentally new and basic understanding of nature’s principles. In 1918, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his theory, but during the next thirty years, numerous scientists added to the contemporary knowledge of quantum theory.

Quantum Theory: A Branch of Physics that Has Evolved

While Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity was essentially the result of his efforts, the quantum theory was produced over thirty years by a team of experts. Max Planck proposed that the energies of any harmonic oscillator (see the harmonic motion), such as the atoms in a blackbody radiator, are constrained to particular values, each of which is an integral (whole number) multiple of a basic, minimum value, in his explanation of blackbody radiation in 1900. 

The energy E of this fundamental quantum is proportional to the oscillator’s frequency v, or E=h, where h is a constant, now known as Planck’s constant, with a value of 6.626071034 joule-second. Einstein argued in 1905 that radiation is quantized using the same formula, and he utilised this new theory to explain the photoelectric effect. Following Rutherford’s discovery of the nuclear atom in 1911, Bohr utilised quantum theory to explain both atomic structure and atomic spectra in 1913, demonstrating the link between the energy levels of electrons and the frequencies of light emitted and absorbed.

The definitive mathematical formulation of quantum theory, quantum mechanics, was produced in the 1920s. In 1924, Louis de Broglie postulated that particles can show wavelike features as well as particle-like properties, as seen in the photoelectric phenomenon and atomic spectra. C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer confirmed this hypothesis experimentally in 1927 when they observed diffraction of a beam of electrons analogous to diffraction of a beam of light. 

Following de Broglie’s idea, two distinct quantum mechanics formulations were provided. Erwin Schrödinger’s (1926) wave mechanics make use of the wave function, a
mathematical entity that is related to the chance of detecting a particle at a given position in space. Werner Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics (1925) does not discuss wave functions or other related concepts, yet it has been proven to be mathematically equal to Schrödinger’s theory.

This is all about the quantum theory of light and its explanation. It is considered to be the basis of modern physics and the world of theoretical physicists is focusing on it. Understand its concept and find out how it helps to unravel the various mysteries of the universe.