Category: Physics Notes PPT

When objects travel at speeds more than the speed of sound, this phenomenon is called a sonic boom. Some people get scared or amazed after witnessing a sonic boom sound, but it has become common these days with a large number of supersonic jets and rockets around. 

When an object travels at a speed greater than the speed of sound, shock waves are generated and a huge amount of energy is liberated. Large supersonic aircraft produce sonic waves that can be startling and may awaken you or cause a bit of damage, like cracks in your window glasses. 

A supersonic beam, although powerful cannot be heard in all directions. Imagine an object travelling at supersonic speed. A sonic boom can be experienced in the zone of an imaginary 3D cone at the back of that object. If you’re in that zone, you will experience a sonic sound as the object passes you. As the object moves, the imaginary conical effect region also moves with it. As the object passes, the observer experiences the boom for a very brief period. 

Scientific Reason Behind a Sonic Beam

As per the sonic boom definition when the object moves more than the speed of sound a huge noise is created. But the exact sonic boom meaning was explained here scientifically. Similar to that of water, the air is also fluid with lesser density. Hence similar to the waves created on the water when an object travels on it, waves are created in the air as well. 

Unlike waves on water, these waves travel at the speed of sound. But with the increase in velocity of the object in the air to the speed of sound, the airwaves are compressed or forced together. This results in a wave merger, into a single shock wave. The power or intensity of the shockwave depends on the amount of air involved or in a way the size of the object being accelerated is called sonic boom speed. 

Sometimes several secondary smaller shock waves are formed at some convex points on the object. Let’s say the wing head or engine inlet of an aircraft. The pressure generated through shock waves by an aircraft is generally a few pounds per square foot. 

Problem of Abating Sonic Booms

With the increase in the number of supersonic aircraft carriers, there arises a problem of sonic booms affecting general people on the ground. It was believed that by flying high the problem of sonic booms could be avoided but it was later proved to be untrue. Richard Seebass and one of his colleagues Albert George studied the problem carefully and finally went to introduce the “figure of merit”. The figure of Merit or FM was a characteristic of the length of the aircraft and its length.  The lesser the FM an aircraft has, the lesser the boom it generates. In modern times, FM levels of 1 or lower are acceptable.

Sound of a Sonic Boom

The sound produced by the sonic booms to a great extent depends on the distance between the observer and the shape of the aircraft producing the sonic boom. The sonic booms sound like a deep double “boom” as the aircraft passes by. The sound is much similar to mortar bombs. The boom is continuous for the entire supersonic flight time and not only during the transition from subsonic to supersonic wave, which in general is a misconception among many.    

An obvious question might arise, ” Do the on-borders hear the sonic boom?” Well, the answer is “No”. The borders don’t hear the sonic boom at all. A simple explanation of this is they don’t fall in the hypothetical 3D conical figure on which the sonic boom has its effects. Atmospheric effects like temperature, humidity, pollution, winds can also affect the sonic boom felt on the ground. Even hard surfaces like concrete, tar, marble can reflect the waves and produce a doubled-up booming effect. Grassy and shrubby cover on the ground can lessen the impact of the sonic waves by absorbing them. 

In the present scenario, there are no standards prescribed legally for sonic booms. But work is underway by the legislators and industry experts in framing guidelines to lessen the impact of sonic booms. 

Conclusion

To summarise, sonic booms are produced when objects travel beyond the speed of sound, due to the concentration of pressure waves to form shock waves, which possess a huge amount of energy. The sonic boom from aircraft can cause ground-level damage, i.e can break glasses of buildings and houses or shatter windows. The pilots themselves cannot hear the sonic booms but can manage to see a wave emanating from behind the aircraft they’re carrying. 

Experts and scientists are trying hard to reduce the effects of the sonic boom on the ground level. Although this a wonderful physics phenomenon to read about, your experience with sonic booms may not be just as pleasing. So, Can sonic booms kill you? Well, technically yes. High-intensity ultrasonic waves can kill you, but such an incidence is very very rare, especially if you are in your home. High-intensity ultrasonic waves from overhead aircraft carriers are more likely to shatter your windows and cause damage to your property. This is the reason they are not routed through populated areas. Experts are framing some rules regarding supersonic jets. Scales are to be formed regarding measuring and comparing the intensity of sonic booms generated by aircraft for the safety of people on the ground.

We hear various types of sounds every second. It can be from the instruments, the sound of thunder, and the list goes on and on. But what is sound? How does it take place? How is the sound created? How does the sound propagation take place? Let us provide you with the answer to all these. We provide the students with the notes of sound propagation to help them clearly understand the phenomenon taking place and the science behind it. Moreover, they will also understand how sound travels through different mediums and the process that follows. These notes are available in PDF download form and make the study process easier for the students. 

The team of at your service helps you make revision notes in a simple way with all the topics included at a single place. Here you have the notes prepared along with introduction, sound definition, characteristic of sound, speed of sound, factors that affect the sound, and more. 

 

What is Sound? 

In simple words, the sound is nothing but a form of energy just like heat, electricity, etc. Consider an example of a source of the sound, such as a bell. Whenever we strike a bell, it creates a sound. What accompanies the sound is the vibration, which causes to and fro motion of the object’s body. 

Sound is the vibration that transmits through mediums like solid, liquid, and gas by the alternate contraction and expansion of the medium in the form of an acoustic wave. 

 

Characteristics of Sound

The pictorial representation of sound is in the form of continuous peaks and valleys. The distance covered between two continuous peaks or troughs is called the wavelength of the wave. The frequency of sound is defined as the number of cycles covered per unit of time. It is measured in Hertz.

 

What is the Speed of Sound?

It is defined as the dynamic propagation of waves taking place through different mediums. The speed of sound varies depending on the medium through which it propagates. When talking about sound speed, we refer to the speed of the sound waves when travelling in an elastic medium. 

The formula for the speed of with respect to gases is as given:

𝜈= √𝛾P/𝜌

𝜈 represents the speed of sound

𝛾 is used as the coefficient of adiabatic expansion 

P represents the pressure of the gas

𝜌 represents the density of the medium in which sound travels

Factors Affecting The Speed of Sound

The factors on which the speed the sound majorly depends are:

• The Density of Medium: Sound requires a medium to travel. The density of the medium is among the factors which affect the speed of sound. The higher the density, the faster the sound travels through the medium. And, on the other hand, the lower the density, the slower the speed of propagation of sound. This means that the speed of sound in different mediums varies directly with the density of the medium. 

• The Temperature of The Medium: Higher the temperature, the higher is the speed of sound in the medium. 
  

Speed of Sound in Different Media

Sound can travel through different mediums, and here is how it propagates through them:

Speed of Sound in Solid

The sound travels in solids through the collision between different molecules and particles. Solids have a higher density in comparison to other mediums, making the speed of sound high. In solids, the speed of sound is approximately 6000 m/s.

Speed of Sound in Liquid

The density of liquids is lower than solids and higher than gases. This leads to the speed of sound in liquids lying between the speed of solids and gases. 

Speed of Sound in Gases

The speed of sound in gases is irrespective of the medium. This is because of the uniformity in the density of gas irrespective of its type.

Speed of Sound in a Vacuum

Sound doesn’t travel through a vacuum, making its speed zero. This happens because of the absence of particles in a vacuum. No propagation of sound waves takes place in a vacuum. 

 

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Chromatography was first introduced to separate the pigments of plants that include chlorophyll, xanthophyll, and carotenes. It was first devised by an Italian scientist in 1900 in Russia, he by developing the technique, coined the term chromatography. These pigments were separated by different colours in different bands, indirectly this got the name for the technique. Furthermore, types of chromatography were introduced for the separation processes. The technique used in the laboratory for the separation of the mixture is called chromatography. There are two phases of chromatography that include stationary phases and mobile phases. 

There are four main types of chromatography:

1. Gas chromatography

2. Liquid chromatography

3. Paper chromatography

4. Thin-layer chromatography

Mobile Phase and Stationary Phase

The mixture used in the technique is dissolved in a fluid, this is known as the mobile phase. This mobile phase is carried through a system that consists of a fixed material on it, which is known as a stationary phase. For the stationary phase, the different constituents present in the mixture have different affinities. Depending on the stationary phase the different molecules stay shorter or longer depending on the interaction between the molecules and the surface sites. The difference in the partitioning between the mobile and stationary phase is the base for the separation of a mixture. The chromatography can happen with the preparation or analytically. A form of purification and the separation of the mixture that happens for later use is preparative chromatography. For the smaller amount of mixture, analytical chromatography is done.

Mobile and Stationary Phase in Paper Chromatography

The separation of a mixture is done by passing the solvent through a chromatographic paper which is called paper chromatography. In the stationary phase chromatography, the water is absorbed that is present in the cellulose whereas the mobile phase consists of organic solvent that is immiscible with the stationary phase. This type of chromatography mainly works on the principle of partition and absorption. 

Paper is used as a stationary phase, the filter paper is selected depending on the four factors, which are the thickness of the paper, purity of the solvent, flow rate, and strength of the paper. There are different types of filter papers that are available commercially, the chemical composition of this paper includes 99% of alpha-cellulose, 0.3-1% of beta cellulose, 0.5-0.8% of pentose, 0.0-0.07% of ash. The widely used type of filter paper is Whatman filter paper. The mobile phase in paper chromatography is selected depending on the Rf value, if the Rf value ranges from 0.2-0.8, then it is selected for the process. 

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There are different types of paper chromatography:

1. Ascending Paper Chromatography: In this technique, the solvent moves in an upward direction.

2. Descending Paper Chromatography: The flow of solvent happens due to the gravitational pull and the capillary action it is directed downwards.

3. Ascending-Descending Paper Chromatography: After a particular point the movement of solvent occurs in a two-direction way. Initially, it travels in an upward direction on the paper that is folded around the rod. When the solvent crosses the paper it travels in a downward direction. 

4. Circular or Radial Paper Chromatography: The sample is present on the filter paper that is circular, it is allowed to dry and once the sample is dried it is tied horizontally on the solvent containing petri dish.

5. Two-Dimensional Paper Chromatography: Substances that have the same Rf value can be separated by using this technique.

Gas Chromatography Stationary Phase

Gas chromatography is the analytic technique used in industrial laboratories and many research for the control of the quality and the identification and quantitation of the mixture. It is frequently used in forensic and environmental laboratories as it allows for the detection of small quantities. The mobile phase consists of inert gas and the stationary phase consists of the packed column. Here the whole solid or packing itself acts as a stationary phase. In most of the analytical gas chromatography, capillary columns are used, the wall of the small-diameter tube is coated with the stationary phase. The mixture is separated depending on the different strengths of interaction between the compounds on the stationary phase. 

Stationary Phase in Column Chromatography

Column chromatography is used to isolate the chemical compound from that of a mixture. The main advantage of this type of chromatography is the stationary phase used here is of low cost and is disposable. The stationary phase in this is solid. The most commonly used stationary phase is silica gel and alumina. There is a wide range of stationary phases that are used to perform different types of chromatography. Usually, the stationary phase used is finely grounded or gel these are microporous that increases the surface area. The important ratio between the stationary phase weight and dry weight of the analyte mixture has to be applied to the column. For the silica column chromatography, the ratio should be 20:1 or 100:1. 

Conclusion:

Chromatography is a technique used to separate the different mixtures. It contains two phases they are stationary and mobile phase. Here the stationary phases are kept fixed and the mobile phase is passed through this stationary phase. Chromatography also helps to catch the criminals, in proteomic analysis, drug testing, etc. Even though it is widely used for many applications it has some disadvantages as it takes a lot of time for the separation of the mixture, the equipment is to be handled with care, high knowledge is required or most experienced persons are required to perform the process.

Supernova is the result of the explosion that occurred by the dying massive star. As a result, tons of energy got released into interstellar space.

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When a massive star burns the nuclear fuel inside it, the interstellar space becomes the hottest, and light spreads all around. 

So, basically, a supernova is the most powerful and light-emitting stellar explosion that occurred most likely 10,000 – 20,000 years ago lastly.

In this article, we will discuss exploding stars, types of supernova – type 1a supernova, and type 2 supernova in detail.

Exploding Stars

We all know that gases like hydrogen and helium make most of the gases in interstellar space and that the place where stars are born. We see that besides hydrogen and helium, there are other gases like carbon, oxygen, and iron also exist.

Stars are huge balls of these gases and take millions of years in their formation, and eventually, they become massive, while storing a huge quantity of energy and fuel within themselves.

A time comes when these stars start burning their nuclear fuel and their core becomes hot. 

Now, these massive stars become five times bigger than the Sun, they give a fantastic bang; during this big bang, a lot of heat and luminous energy is released into space. Soon this star releases all of its fuel and becomes dwarf due to the runaway of all its energy, it dies. Eventually, this last hurrah of the dying star is Supernova. 

Now, a time comes to understand what a supernova is.

What is a Supernova?

From the above introduction, we read that supernova is a powerful and luminous stellar explosion. 

This transient and mighty astronomical event occurred during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf led into runaway nuclear fusion.

The original object, viz: the progenitor either collapses to a neutron star or a black hole gets completely destroyed. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova is in contrast to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several days/months.

Now, let’s understand the types of supernova.

Types of Supernova

The two following types of supernova are as follows:

1. Type 1a Supernova

2. Type 2 Supernova

3. Real supernova

Type 1a Supernova

• This type of nova takes place in binary star systems. In this, one star is classified as a white dwarf.

• This white dwarf accretes material from its large counterpart, accumulates mass, and this incites a chain nuclear reaction.

• After culminating in the star, reaching the critical density, it explodes in a type 1a supernova. Beams of gamma rays spread in space.

Type 2 Supernova

Type 2 is known as the second type of supernova. It occurs at the end of the lifetime of a star. As the star releases its entire fuel, some of its mass flows into its core. 

A time comes when the core becomes so heavy that it cannot handle its own gravitational force. Therefore, the core collapses and results in the giant explosion of a supernova.

Steps of How Type 2 Supernova Occurs:

• Stars after losing the ability to fuse heavy elements, also lose the ability to retain gravitational equilibrium. After this, the core collapses.

• This core rebounds in quick succession subsequently releasing the outer layer of gases into the atmosphere. Hence, a nebula formation occurs.

• After the dust settles, a neutron star or a black hole is left behind, which hinges the Earth’s star.

Besides the two types of supernova, there is another supernova and that is a real supernova, as classified by AI with unprecedented accuracy.

Real Supernova

Artificial intelligence is trying to classify real supernova explosions without the traditional employment of spectra. 

However, the astronomers developed a software program that classifies various supernovae based on their light curves, or how their brightness varies over time. 

A postdoctoral researcher at the CfA and lead author on the first of two papers published in The Astrophysical Journal named Griffin Hosseinzadeh said that they have approximately 2,500 supernovae with light curves from the Pan-STARRS1 Medium Deep Survey, and 500 among these supernovae with spectra that can be utilized for classification.

Do You Know?

• The first supernova was seen in 1604. The amazing thing was, it reached the Earth planet only.

• Supernova is 13,000 light-years away from the Earth.

• Lastly, a supernova explosion formed a Vela Supernova Remnant around 20,000 years ago. The earliest supernova was HB9 that was recorded by a few Indian observants in around 4500 ± 10,000 B.C.

• Supernova is radiant and it emits more energy at the peak of the explosion than a whole galaxy, like the Milky Way, with a hundred million stars typically emits. A supernova emits the same energy in a few months that the Sun will emit in its entire life.

Electronic Communication Systems

Electronic Communication Systems Electronic communications are the transmission, reception, and processing of information between two or more locations with the use of electronic circuits. The basic components of an electronic communications system are the transmitter, communications channel or medium, receiver, and noise. Analog signals (such human voice) or digital signals (binary data) are inputted to the system, processed within the electronic circuits for transmission, then decoded by the receiver. The system is claimed to be reliable and effective only errors are minimized within the process. Examples: Internet, public switched telephone network, intranet and extranet, and television

 

Different Types of Communication Systems

1. Analog

2. Digital

3. Wired (Line communication)

4. Wireless (Space communication)

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Communication System

 

Terms Used In Electronic Communication Systems

1. Information

Message or information is the entity that is to be transmitted. It is often within the sort of audio, video, temperature, picture, pressure, etc.

2. Signal

The single-valued function of time that carries the information. For transmission, the information is converted into an electrical form.

3. Transducer

A device or an arrangement that converts one form of energy to the other. An electrical transducer converts physical variables like pressure, force, temperature into corresponding electrical signal variations. Example: Microphone, Photodetector.

4. Amplifier

The electronic circuit or device that increases the amplitude or the strength of the transmitted signal is named an amplifier. When the signal strength becomes but the specified value, amplification is often done anywhere in between transmitter and receiver. The amplification is provided by a  DC power source.

5. Modulator

As the original message signal can’t be transmitted over an outsized distance due to their low frequency and amplitude, they’re superimposed with high frequency and amplitude waves called carrier waves. This phenomenon of superimposing a message signal with a carrier wave is called modulation. And the resultant wave is a modulated wave which is to be transmitted.

Different Types Of Modulation.

i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)

iii. Phase Modulation (PM)

6. Transmitter

It is the arrangement that processes the message signal into an appropriate form for transmission and subsequently reception.

7. Antenna

An Antenna is a structure or a device that radiates and receives electromagnetic waves. So, they are used in both transmitters and receivers.

8. Channel

It refers to a physical medium such as wire, cables, space through which the signal is passed from transmitter to the receiver.

9. Noise

Noise is one of the channel imperfections or impairment in the received signal at the destination. External sources include interference, interference generated by natural sources like solar, lightning, or radiation, from automobile generated radiation. The external noise is often minimized and eliminated by the appropriate design of the channel, shielding of cables. Digital transmission external noise is often minimized.

10. Attenuation

Attenuation is a problem caused by the medium. When the signal is propagating for an extended distance through a medium, counting on the length of the medium the initial power decreases. The loss in initial power is directly proportional to the length of the medium. Using amplifiers, the signal power is strengthened or amplified so on reducing attenuation. Digital signals are comparatively less susceptible to attenuation than analog signals.

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Effect of Attenuation

11. Distortion

It is also another type of channel problem. The signal may have frequency and bandwidth different from the transmitted signal when the signal is distorted. The variation in the signal frequency can be linear or nonlinear.

12. Receiver

The message or information from the transmitted signal at the output end of the channel is extracted by an arrangement that is called a receiver and as the original message signal is a receiver it is reproduced in a suitable form.

13. Demodulator

It is the inverse phenomenon of modulation. The process of separation of message signals from the carrier takes place within the demodulator. The information is retrieved from the modulated wave.

14. Repeaters

Repeaters are placed at different locations in between the transmitter and receiver. A repeater receives the transmitted signal, amplifies it, and sends it to the next repeater without distorting the original signal.

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Diagram for Repeaters

 

Fun Facts

• There are around 250 billion emails sent every day. Around 80% of these are spam.

• Around 20 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube every minute. 

• Fiber optics are good because they use less energy and are better for the environment than electrical wires. They are also very resistant to weather. 

• The first telephone pole was built in 1876. 

• There are over 4 billion cell phones within the world and phones that are thrown away every year are over 100 million.

• The first cell phone was invented by a company called Motorola.

• Over 3.8 billion people use the internet, which is 40% of the world’s population.

• The first smiley appeared in 1979, it first looked like this -) then three years later colon was added to it and it took the form of 🙂 this.

Thermodynamics is said to be a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature and their relation with the energy and radiation and physical properties of matter. The behaviour that is of these quantities is governed by the four laws that are of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic quantities in physics. But these all can also be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. The phenomenon of thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially in physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering as well in other complex fields such as meteorology. Here, we will discuss thermodynamics in detail.

 

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Origin of Thermodynamics 

Before 1798, people were not aware of utilising heat as the source of energy. After that, a British military engineer, Count Rumford, noticed the numerous amounts of heat generated in the boring of cannon barrels. He also identified that the heat generated from the boring cannon barrels are proportional to the work done in turning a blunt boring tool. His observation turned into the foundation of thermodynamics. The concept of the heat-engine cycle and the principle of reversibility was introduced by the French military engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824. But he failed to be concerned about the limitations and the maximum work that can be obtained from a steam engine with a high temperature.  

Later, a German mathematician and physicist, Rudolf Clausius, developed the ideas of  Sadi Carnot and stated the first and second laws of thermodynamics. During the 19th century, the concept of thermodynamics increased rapidly and increased the performance of steam engines and the application of thermodynamics was increased in all physical and biological systems.

 

Laws of Thermodynamics and Limitations 

The four important laws of thermodynamics and their limitations are explained below

1. First Law Thermodynamics

Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy can neither be created nor can it be destroyed. Energy can only be transferred or changed that too from one form to another. For example, we can say that turning on a light would seem to produce energy, however, it is the electrical energy which is converted.

A way of expressing the first law of thermodynamics is that any change which is in the internal energy denoted by ∆E of a system is given by the sum of the heat that is denoted by q that flows across its boundaries and the work (w) done on the system by the surroundings:

We write it as : ∆E = q + w

This law tells us that there are two kinds of processes: the work process and the heat process that can lead to a change in the internal energy of a system. Since we can see that both heat and work can be measured and quantified so this is the same as saying that any change which is occurring in the energy of a system. In other words, we can say that energy cannot be created or destroyed. If heat usually flows into a system or we can say that the surroundings do work on it then the internal energy increases and the sign q and w are positive. Conversely, we can say that the heat flowing out of the system or work which is done by the system that too on the surroundings will be at the expense of the internal energy and q and w will therefore be negative.

The first law of thermodynamics does not mention anything about the direction of the flow of heat energy. Also, they did not mention whether the process is spontaneous or not, reversible or not. Practically, the entire heat energy cannot be converted into mechanical energy.

2.The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any system which is isolated always increases. The system which is the isolated system spontaneously evolves towards a thermal equilibrium that is the state of entropy which is the maximum of the system. We can say that the entropy of the universe which is of the ultimate isolated system only increases and never decreases.

A simple way in which we can think of the second law of thermodynamics is that of a room. If not cleaned and tidied, then the room will invariably become more messy and disorderly with time – that is regardless of how careful one is to keep it clean. When the room is cleaned then its entropy decreases but the effort to clean it has resulted in an increase in entropy outside the room that exceeds the loss of the entropy.

The second law of thermodynamics does not have limitations. But this law is applicable only for the closed system. 

3.The Third Law of Thermodynamics

The entropy that is of a system at absolute zero is typically said to be zero. And we can say that in all cases it is determined only by the number of different ground states it has. Specifically, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance in the perfect order which is at absolute zero temperature is zero. This statement is to hold true if the perfect crystal has only one state with energy that is minimum. 

The third law of thermodynamics limits the behaviour of the system because the temperature of the system approaches absolute zero.

4.The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

This law identifies the thermal equilibrium and introduces temperature as a tool for identifying equilibrium. According to this law, “we can say that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system then those two systems themselves are in equilibrium.”

An assembly that is of a very large number of particles whose state can be expressed in terms of pressure and volume and temperature, is known as a thermodynamic system.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics is not applicable for all kinds of equilibrium. Other laws cannot be derived from the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

The Thermodynamic System is Said to Be Classified Into the Following Three Systems

(i) Open System: It exchanges both energy and matter with the surrounding.

(ii) Closed System: It exchanges only energy but not matter with surroundings.

(iii) Isolated System: It exchanges neither energy nor matter with the surrounding.

Thermodynamics Notes PDF

The branch of physics which deals with the study of the transformation of heat into other different forms of energy and vice-versa is known as thermodynamics.

The phenomenon of thermodynamics is macroscopic science. It generally deals with bulk systems and does not go into the molecular constitution of the matter.

A collection which is of an extremely large number of molecules or atoms is said to be confined within certain boundaries

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h that it has a certain value of pressure denoted by P volume denoted by V and temperature denoted by T is known as a thermodynamic system.

The Thermal Equilibrium

A system of thermodynamics is in a state of equilibrium if the macroscopic variables such as pressure and volume and temperature, mass composition etc. that generally characterise the system do not change in time. In equilibrium that is thermal equilibrium, the temperature of the two systems is said to be equal.

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Fundamental Concepts Of Thermodynamics 

The applications of thermodynamic principles completely depend on the system and its surroundings. For example, the system can be a cylinder with gas, movable piston, steam engine, marathon runner etc. Usually, a system will exchange its heat, energy or another form of work with its surroundings. The condition of the system at the given time is called the thermodynamic state.  The changes in the value of the system are completely dependent on their initial and final state. One system cannot follow the path of the other system. In the atmosphere of the earth, the thermodynamic states completely depend on the properties of the components. The thermodynamic state may vary for water and water vapour. 

Thermodynamic equilibrium is one of the important concepts of thermodynamics. According to thermodynamic equilibrium, no system has the tendency to change the state of a system spontaneously. For example, the gas present inside the cylinder with a moveable piston will remain at equilibrium only if the pressure and temperature inside the cylinder are constant. When the external pressure is imposed on the system, it may change the thermodynamic equilibrium of the system. Usually, no system can be in the equilibrium state, it will adjust according to the changes in the environment. In some systems, it may return to its original state after a small increment, and such a system is said to be a reversible system. 

If the two objects are brought together to have a thermal contact, then the heat will flow from one object to another, still attaining its equilibrium state. If the transfer of heat between two objects stops, it means that the temperature of the two objects becomes the same. 

The work done by the system is directly proportional to the force applied to the system. The energy of the system refers to the capacity of the system to do certain work. The energy of the system is classified into two types, one is potential energy, and the other is kinetic energy. All the objects will have some potential energy, and the energy developed during the motion of the object is known as kinetic energy. If the object does not have any friction, then the energy of the object is never lost. Albert Einstein also said that it is possible to store the energy in the form of mass and can be converted back into energy through the formula,  E = mc². 

Total Internal Energy

Thermodynamics also deals with the macroscopic properties of the materials such as temperature, volume and pressure. The thermal energy of the object will increase as the increase in kinetic energy. The total energy of a system is equal to the sum of internal energy of a system with other forms of energy like kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy etc. 

This article explained the origin of thermodynamics, fundamental concepts of heat and thermodynamics, laws of thermodynamics in detail with their limitations.