Category: Physics Notes PPT

Science is an application-based subject of learning the environment in different ways. For students, there are three major divisions of this subject namely, Physics, that is, the study of the behaviour of the universe. Chemistry, which involves the study of substances and their chemical reactions and properties in nature. And finally, Biology involves the study of living beings in the environment. 

As mentioned earlier, Physics is a branch of science that studies the behaviour of the universe in the form of matter and energy. Physics is highly used in our everyday lives. Car seat belts, earphones, camera lenses, ballpoint pens, steam iron are some examples of physics from the everyday life of human beings.

Introduction

The Maxwell equations are the fundamental equations of electromagnetism, which combines Gauss’s law of electricity, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Gauss’s law of magnetism and Ampere’s law of current in a conductor. Maxwell’s equations are a set of differential equations, which along with the Lorentz force law forms the basic foundation of electromagnetism, electric circuits and classical optics.

Maxwell’s equations provide a mathematical model for static electricity, electric current, radio technologies, optics, power generation, wireless communication, radar, electric motor, lenses, etc. These equations describe the working nature of electric and magnetic fields, and how they are produced by charges, currents and due to change of electric or magnetic field.

These equations are named after a Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation. He published these questions by including the Lorentz Force law between the years 1861 and 1862. Maxwell’s first equation proposed that ‘light is electromagnetic in nature’.

Maxwell’s Equations Explained

Maxwell formulated four equations for free space, which are mentioned below:

1. First Maxwell’s Equation: Gauss’s Law for Electricity

Gauss’s law of electricity states that “the electric flux passing through a closed surface is equal to 1/ε0 times the net electric charge enclosed by that closed surface”.

Gauss’s law of electricity describes the relationship between a static electric field and the electric charges which cause the electric field. A static electric field always points in a direction away from the positive charge, and it points in a direction towards the negative charge. It also describes that the net outflow of the electric field through any closed surface is directly proportional to the net amount of charge enclosed by that closed surface.

The electric field lines begin at a positive charge and end at a negative charge. The total number of electric field lines that pass through a closed surface, divided by the dielectric constant of free space (permittivity of vacuum), gives the total amount of charge enclosed by that closed surface.

1. Maxwell’s Equations Integral Form

e = q/e0 ——– (i)

Also, e = [int vec{E}.dvec{A}] —- (ii)

Comparing equations (i) and (ii), we have:

[int vec{E}.dvec{A}] = q/∈₀      —- (iii)

This is the integral form of Maxwell’s 1st equation.

2. Maxwell Equation in Differential Form

The value of total charge in terms of volume charge density is q = ∫pdv

So, the equation (iii) becomes:

[int vec{E}.dvec{A}=frac{1}{e_0}int Pdv]

Applying divergence theorem on the left-hand side of the above equation, we have:

[int (vec{triangledown }.vec{E})d.V=frac{1}{epsilon _0}int pdv]

[int (vec{triangledown }.vec{E})d.V-frac{1}{epsilon _0}int pdv=0]

[int [(vec{triangledown }.vec{E})-frac{P}{epsilon _0}]d.V=0]

[(vec{triangledown }.vec{E})-frac{P}{epsilon _0}=0]

[(vec{triangledown }.vec{E})-frac{P}{epsilon _0}]

This is the differential form of Maxwell’s 1st equation.

2. Second Maxwell’s Equation: Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

Gauss’s law of magnetism states that “the net magnetic flux of a magnetic field passing through a closed surface is zero”. This is because magnets always occur in dipoles, and magnetic monopoles do not exist.

The magnetic field is generated due to the dipole nature of the magnet. The net outflow of the magnetic field through any closed surface is zero. Magnetic dipoles behave like loops of current with positive and negative (i.e magnetic charges) which cannot be separated from each other.

According to Gauss’s law of magnetism, magnetic field lines make loops, and they start from the magnet and extend till infinity and back. In other words, if field lines enter an object, they will also come out of that object. The total magnetic field through a Gaussian surface is zero, and the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.

This is a graphical representation of magnetic field lines which neither benign nor ends, but forms loops.

3. Third Maxwell’s Equation: Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Maxwell modified Faraday’s law of induction. It describes the production of electric fields by a time-varying magnetic field. This law describes, “ work needed for moving a unit charge around a closed loop structure equals the magnetic field transforming around that particular loop”.

The induced electric field lines are similar to that of magnetic field lines unless they are superimposed by a static electric field. This concept of electromagnetic induction is the basic operating principle behind many electric devices like rotating bar magnets for creating changing magnetic fields, which further produces electric fields in a nearby conducting wire.

The Earth’s magnetic field is altered in a geomagnetic storm, due to a surge in the flux of charged particles, which further induces an electric field in Earth’s atmosphere.

∈ = -Ndm/dt- ————– (v)

Since emf, if related to the electric field by the relation

∈ =[int vec{E}.vec{d}A]

Also, 

Putting these values in equation (v), we have:

[int vec{E}.vec{d}A=-Nint vec{E}.vec{d}Aint vec{B}.vec{d}A]

For N = 1, we have

[int vec{E}.vec{d}A=frac{-d}{dt}int vec{B}.vec{d}A]

This is the integral formula of Maxwell’s third equation.

Applying stoke’s theorem on L.H.S of equation (vi), we have:

[int (vec{triangledown }.vec{E})dvec{A}=frac{-d}{dt}int vec{B}.dvec{A}]

[int (vec{triangledown }.vec{E})dvec{A}+frac{d}{dt}int vec{B}.dvec{A}=0]

[(vec{triangledown }.vec{E})+frac{dvec{B}}{dt}=0]

[(vec{triangledown }.vec{E})=frac{-dvec{B}}{dt}]

This is the differential form of Maxwell’s third equation.

4. Ampère’s law with Maxwell’s addition

According to Ampere’s law with Maxwell addition, “magnetic field can either be produced by electric current or by altering the electric field. The first statement is as per Ampere’s law whereas the
latter is according to Maxwell’s addition, the displacement current. The induced magnetic field around any closed loop is directly proportional to the electric current and the displacement current through that closed surface.

Maxwell’s addition to the Ampère establishes a relationship to make a set of equations mathematically consistent with the non-static fields, without changing the Ampère’s and Gauss’s laws for static fields. However, a changing electric field produces a magnetic field and vice versa. Therefore, these equations create a possibility for self-sustaining “electromagnetic waves” to travel through a vaccum.

The speed of electromagnetic waves is equal to the speed of light as per the calculations and observations. Light is also a type of electromagnetic radiation (like X-rays and radio waves).

Maxwell established the relation between electromagnetic waves and light in the year 1861, from there he unified the theories of electromagnetism and optics.

This is a magnetic core memory (1954), an application of Ampère’s law. Each core stores data of the size of one bit.

Merits of learning from the online platform of

This is all about Maxwell’s famous equations used in the different concepts of physics. Understand the meaning of the terms used in each equation to determine their uses and applications. 

They are a class of rocks that result from the alteration of pre-existing rocks in response to changing environmental conditions or any natural situations without any liquefaction process, such as fluctuations with temperature, pressure, and mechanical stress, and the inclusion or subtraction of any available chemical components.

Definition and Examples

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing natural rock substances to new types of rock without any exterior liquefaction manually done, in a process called metamorphism. During this process, the original rock is subjected to temperatures of more than 150-200 degrees celsius and often pressures of more than 100 megapascals resulting in vast physical and chemical modifications.

Types and Characteristics

Common metamorphic rocks varieties include phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble. 

Metamorphic rocks can be classified into two main categories based on the way they are formed – those that are foliated as they have been formed due to high pressure and under shear stress and those that are not foliated under any form of pressure. 

Types of Metamorphism

The three major types of metamorphism are Contact, Regional, and Dynamic metamorphism.

• Contact Metamorphism occurs when hot lava comes in contact with an already existing body of rock. When this happens the existing rock’s current temperature rises and also becomes infiltrated with fluid from the volcano. 

• Regional Metamorphism occurs over a much larger surface area. This type of metamorphism produces and forms rocks such as gneiss and schist. Regional metamorphism is mainly caused by large geologic processes such as mountain-building.

• Dynamic Metamorphism, like regional metamorphism, also occurs because of mountain-building. These huge forces of heat and pressure that are applied naturally cause the rocks to be bent, folded, crushed, flattened, and sheared in any manner. As hard as or even harder than igneous rocks, metamorphic is almost always harder than sedimentary rocks. They form the roots of many mountain chains and are exposed to the surface after the softer outer layers of rocks are eroded away due to any natural calamities caused.

A message carrying signal is the one that has to get transmitted over a certain distance, and for it to establish a reliable communication, it requires the help of a high-frequency signal, which should not affect the original properties or characteristics of the transmitted message signal.

If the characteristics of the message signal are changed, then the message contained in it also alters. Therefore, it is essential to take care of the transmitted message signal. A high-frequency signal can travel up to a larger distance, that too, without getting affected by external disturbances. We usually take the help of such a high-frequency signal called a carrier signal for transmitting the message signal. The process is known as Modulation.

Modulation refers to the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal corresponding to the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

 

What is a Baseband Signal?

A baseband signal refers to a transmission signal that hasn’t been modulated or demodulated to its original frequency. It can be transmitted over optical fibres, coaxial cables. 

 

What is the Need for Modulation?

The baseband signals are not compatible with direct transmission. For such a signal to travel much larger and longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high-frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

 

Advantages of Modulation

Before the concept of modulation, the antenna used for transmission had to be large enough. Consequently, the range of communication used to get limited as the wave couldn’t travel to a distance without getting distorted.

The advantages of implementing modulation in the communication systems are as follows:

• The size of the antenna gets reduced

• There’s no scope for signal mixing

• The communication range increases

• Multiplexing of signals occurs

• Adjustments in the bandwidth are allowed

• Improvement in the reception quality

 

What are the Different Types of Modulation?

There are several different types of modulations. Based on the modulation techniques used, they are categorized into the types, as shown in the following figure.

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Modulation is broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse modulation.

In the continuous-wave modulation, a high-frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave, whereas, in Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses is used as a carrier wave.

 

Amplitude Modulation

If the amplitude of the high-frequency carrier wave is varied following the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, it is known as Amplitude Modulation.

If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, following the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, it is known as Angle Modulation.

The angle modulation is further classified into frequency and phase modulation.

 

Frequency Modulation

If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, following the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, it is known as Frequency Modulation.

 

Phase Modulation

If the phase of the high-frequency carrier wave is varied following the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, it is known as Phase Modulation.

 

Difference Between Modulation and Demodulation

 Modulation is defined as the process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. The new signal has quite a few benefits over an un-modulated signal. To be specific, the mixing of the low-frequency signal with the high-frequency carrier signal is known as modulation.

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The term Demodulation refers to the process of extracting the original information-bearing transmitted signal from a carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit, which is used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave.

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Motional emf is a process in which an emf is inserted into a conductor as a result of its movement within a magnetic field. Suppose a U-shaped spinning wire is inserted into the magnetic field and a metal rod is placed over the wire. If a metal conducting rod is allowed to go right or left with a U-shaped wire, the emf will be inserted inside that loop. This inserted emf is commonly referred to as motional emf. Many applications of this concept exist, as we will see in the next article (electric blood flow meter).

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To understand electromotive electromagnetic force, let’s do something. Let’s take a rectangular coil, an L-shaped steel rod, traveling V-speed, passing through magnetic field B. There is a magnetic field somewhere.

Length, speed and magnetic field must always be at right angles to each other. The direction of the magnetic field goes inward. Assume that the steel rod is not rigid which means there is no loss of strength due to sliding and we use the same magnetic field. The conductor rod is moved at a constant speed and placed in a magnetic field.

But ‘x’ changes over time,

E = -[frac{dPhi }{Bdt} = -frac{d}{dt} = -left ( Blx right ) = -Blfrac{dx}{dt}]

E = Blv

The inserted emf Blv is a dynamic electromotive force. We therefore produce the emf by moving the conductor within the same magnetic field. The force required to move the conductor rod into the magnetic field,

P = [frac{B^{2}l^{2}v^{2}}{R}]

There,

B is a magnetic field,

l conductor length

v driver speed

R resistance

The magnetic flux associated with the coil is given by Φ = BA cos θ. We know that cos θ = 0, so Φ = BA. The electromotive power movement can also be described as the Lorentz power that works on free carriers. Lorentz’s strengths are in control:

F = qVB

EMF

Any change in magnetic flux induces an emf opposing that change is the process known as induction. The motion is one of the major causes of the process of induction. For example, we can say that a magnet which has moved toward a coil induces an emf and a coil which has moved toward a magnet produces a similar emf. In this section, we will discuss motion in a magnetic field stationary relative to the planet Earth producing what is loosely known as motional emf. There is one situation where we can say there is a motion that generally occurs, called the Hall effect and has already been examined. The moving charges which are moving in a magnetic field experience the magnetic force denoted by F = qvB. Refer to the official website of or download the app for an elaborate and comprehensive explanation. 

What is Motional EMF?

The charge which we are talking about in opposite directions and produces an emf = Bℓv. We can generally see that the Hall effect has applications which include measurements that are of symbols which are B and v. We will also notice now that the Hall effect is one aspect of the broader phenomenon of induction and we will conclude that motional emf can be used as a power source. Here we should consider the situation of a rod moving at a speed v along a pair of conducting rails which are separated by a distance denoted by symbol ℓ in a uniform magnetic field B. The rails which are stationary relative to B and are connected to a stationary resistor denoted by R.

 

Motional Electro-Motive Force

The resistor generally could be anything from a light bulb to even a voltmeter. Let us consider the area enclosed by the moving rod, rails, and resistor. The letter B which we know is perpendicular to this area and we can say that the area is increasing as the rod moves. Thus, here we notice that the magnetic flux generally enclosed by the rails and the rod and resistor is increasing. When the term changes then generally an emf is induced according to Faraday’s law of induction.

Here again, we see that to find the magnitude of emf induced along the moving rod uses the law of Faraday of induction without the sign:

denoted as emf = [frac{NDelta }{Phi Delta }]

Here and below also the term “emf” is the magnitude of the emf. In this equation we have learnt that the equation N = 1 and the flux denoted by Φ = BA cos θ. We have already seen a symbol denoted by letter or symbol θ = 0º and cos θ = 1 since B is perpendicular to A. Now the symbol ∆Φ = ∆(BA) = BΔA since B is uniform. We can see that the area swept out by the rod is ∆A = l∆x. 

Lenz’s Law

Lenz’s law of electromagnetic input states that the current induced magnetic field current (according to Faraday’s magnetic field) is so precise that the current induced magnetic field contradicts the original magnetic field that it produced. . Guidance for this current flow is provided by Fleming’s right-handed law.

Lenz’s law is based on Faraday’s import law. Faraday’s law tells us that a flexible magnetic field will apply current to a conductor.

Lenz’s law tells us the direction of what is currently being done, which contradicts the first ever-changing magnetic field it has produced. This is indicated in the Faraday law formula with the negative symbol (‘-’).

E = -[frac{dPhi _{b}}{Bdt}]

To find the direction of the induced field, the direction of the current and the polarity of the induced emf we apply the law of Lenz’s The term Flux is increasing too since the area enclosed is increasing. Motional emf also occurs if the magnetic field that moves and the rod or other object is stationary relative to the planet Earth or we can say some observer. We have also seen an example of this in the situation where a moving magnet induces an emf in a stationary coil. It is the relative motion that is important. What is emerging in these observations that we have already seen is a connection between magnetic and electric fields. A moving magnetic field generally produces an electric field seen through its induced emf. We already have seen in our article a moving electric field which generally produces a magnetic field moving charge that generally implies moving electric field and moving charge which produces a magnetic field.

Calculating Motional Electro-Motive Force

The emf of earth’s weak field magnetic is not ordinarily very large or we would notice voltage that along the rod of metal such as a screwdriver during ordinary motions. For example, we can say that a simple calculation of the motional emf of a 1 m rod that is moving at 3.0 m/s perpendicular to the planets earth’s field gives emf = Bℓv = (5.0 × 10⁻⁵ T)(1.0 m)(3.0 m/s) = 150 μV. 

We can say that there is a spectacular exception, however. In 1996 and 1992 attempts were made with the space shuttle to create large motions that have EMFs. A tethered Satellite which was to be let out on a length of 20 km of wire to create a 5 kV emf by moving at a speed orbital through the field of the planet Earth’s. To complete the circuit the stationary ionosphere was to supply a return path for the current to flow. The ionosphere is rarefied and we can say it is the partially ionized atmosphere at orbital altitudes. It could be said to conduct because of the ionization. The ionosphere that generally serves the same function as the stationary rails and the connecting resistor without which there would not be a complete circuit.

 

Concept Explanation

This concept of moving emf can be explained with the help of the Lo
rentz force concept that works on driver-free carriers. Let us consider any incorrect charge on the PQ conductor. As the rod moves at a constant speed v, the charging also travels at a constant speed v in front of the magnetic field B. Lorentz’s power in this charge is given:

F = qvB

The work done to move the charge from P to Q can be provided by,

W = QBvl

As, emf is defined as the function performed per unit,

∈ = wq = Bvl

A neutron is a subatomic particle holding no charge. This particle was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 where he observed that when beryllium was bombarded with the alpha particles neutral radiation was emitted. The application of principles of conservation of energy and momentum stated that the bombardment of beryllium with alpha particles led to extremely penetrating radiations that could not be deflected by an electrical or magnetic field were not protons. They were neutrons because neutrons are chargeless particles, and do not get deflected by an electric or magnetic field.

 

Moreover, after the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick, the English physicist, several investigators in the entire world began to study the interactions and properties of the particle. Besides, it was also discovered that when elements are bombarded by neutrons, they undergo fission which is a nuclear reaction that happens when the nucleus of any heavy element splits into two equal but smaller fragments.

 

In the year 1942, under the leadership and guidance of physicist Enrico Fermi, a group of researchers showed that to sustain a chain reaction, free neutrons are made during the fission process. This major development led to the formation of the atomic bomb. Nevertheless, neutrons have become an important instrument for pure research purposes.

 

 

The Neutrons Have Slightly Higher Mass than the Protons Given by,

 

Isodiaphers 

In nuclear physics, isodiaphers refer to the set of elements having different numbers of protons (atomic number) and neutrons and mass number (no of neutrons + no of protons) however they have the same difference between the number of neutrons and protons and neutrons excess are same.

To determine if the atoms are isodiaphers, we use the formula,

 

Where P is the number of protons and N is the number of neutrons that can be calculated by the difference in mass number (A) of an atom and the number of protons in that atom. 

If the difference of N- P in each atom comes out to be the same, then those two atoms are considered as isodiaphers.

 

Isobars and Isotones

Isobars

The set of elements has the same number of nucleons, where nucleons are protons or neutrons. For example, 40 Sulfur, 40 Chlorine, 40 Argon, 40 Potassium, and 40 Calcium are all isobars. Moreover, despite having the same mass number, isobars have different atomic numbers for different chemical elements. While stable isotopes can exist in a free state, radioactive isotopes are way too unstable to even sustain. Besides, in 1918, Alfred Walter Stewart, recommended the word isobar while it is derived from the word isos, which means equal, and baros, which means weight in the Greek language.

 

Isotones

The two or more atoms or nuclei having the same number of neutrons are called isotones. For example, 36S, 37Cl, 38Ar, 39K and 40 Ca nuclei are isotones as they all comprise 20 neutrons. 

 

Isotones Examples

Example 1

Chlorine-37 and Potassium-39

Chlorine (Cl)

No of protons  = 17

No of neutrons = 37 – 17 = 20

Potassium (K)

No of protons = 19

No of neutrons = 39- 19 = 20

Cl and K are isotones

 

Example 2

32 Ge 76 and 34 Se 78

Germanium (Ge)

No of neutrons = 76 – 32 = 44

Selenium (Se) 

No of neutrons = 78 – 34 = 44

Ge and Se are isotones.

 

Isodiaphers Examples

The atoms of different elements have the same difference of neutrons and protons.

Example1

Thorium – 234  =  90 Th 144

No of protons (atomic number Z ) = 90

Since mass number = no of neutrons + no of protons

Mass number (denoted by A) = 234 and no of protons = 90

No of neutrons = 234 – 90 = 144

Difference between neutrons and protons  = 144 -90 = 54…(1)

and Uranium-238  =  92 U 238

No of protons (atomic number Z)  = 92

No of neutrons = 146

Difference between neutrons and protons  = 146 – 92 = 54….(2)

As you can see in eq(1) and eq(2) the difference between the neutrons and protons for Thorium-234 and Uranium-238 are the same. Hence we can say that these two elements are isodiaphers.

 

Example 2

9 F 19 and Sodium 11 Na 23

Fluorine  

No of protons = 9 

and number of neutrons = 10 (19 – 9)

Difference  = 10 -9 = 1

Sodium 

No of protons = 11  and

number of neutrons = 12 (23 – 11)

So the difference will be  = 12  – 11  = 1

Here, we can see that the difference is the same, i.e. 1.

Hence fluorine and sodium are isodiaphers.

 

Isomer and Isotope

Isomer

Isomer is a Greek word, which means having equal share or part.

In nuclear physics, any two or more nuclei that possess the same number of neutrons and protons and mass number, however, exist in different energy states and have different radioactive properties.

It can also be said that the nuclei exist in any of several energy states for a measurable period of time.

For example, two nuclear isomers of Cobalt-58 are 58Co and 58mCo

Where 58Co  is a lower energy isomer has a half-life of 71 days and the high energy isomer is 58mCo (here m is for metastable which means 58mCo tends to remain in the state of equilibrium) having a half-life of 9 hours undergoes gamma decay further to form 58Co.

 

Gamma Decay

It is the stage that occurs when a nucleus is in an excited state and has too much energy to be stable, only energy is emitted however the number of protons remains the same.

 

Half-life 

In radioactive decay, the half-life is the duration of time following which there is a 50% chance that the atom will undergo nuclear decay.

 

Isotope

Isotopes are the set of atoms or nuclei that have the same number of protons however different numbers of neutrons. For example, Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 have 6 protons in each, however, have 6 and 8 neutrons respectively.

 

Nevertheless, you may have never noticed but in the periodic table, each square on it represents a family none other than isotopes, in which atoms have different masses but share the same chemical properties and name. In order to understand and go in-depth to know what isotopes can be used for, one must take a peek into the interior of an atom. Besides, in nature, there are around three isotopes of carbon consisting of carbon-12, carbon-14
, and carbon-13 while all these three carbons have six protons but their neutron numbers differ. All these three are chemically indistinguishable as in each of three isotopes, the number of electrons remains the same. So if we speak chemically, different isotopes of the very same element remain identical. But if the isotope transforms into another element then the ability of this rule changes.

The process in which the nuclei of two light atoms combine to form a new nucleus is known as nuclear fusion. It is the process that powers the sun and the stars and is the ultimate energy source for the future of mankind as it is another way of producing nuclear energy like nuclear fission.

The combination of Deuterium and Tritium, the two isotopes of Hydrogen to give Helium and releasing a neutron and giving out around 17 MeV of energy is an example of a nuclear fusion.

Nuclear Fusion reactions occur when two or more nuclei of the atom come close enough up to the extent that the nuclear force pulling them together exceeds the electrostatic force that pushes them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei lighter than iron-56 the reaction is exothermic, thus releasing energy while for nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is endothermic, thus requiring energy. 

Therefore we can say that nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart.

Nuclear Binding Energy and Nuclear Fusion

When two lighter nuclei undergo a fusion reaction, the combination has a mass that is less than the mass of the initial individual nuclei. This difference in the mass between the reactants and products is compensated by either the release or absorption of energy known as binding energy between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. 

Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence explains the energy that the reaction gives out energy during Fusion.

Applications of Nuclear Fusion

One of the main uses of nuclear fusion is that of generating electricity. Fusion power makes use of heat that is generated from nuclear fusion reactions to produce electricity with the help of a device called a thermonuclear reactor. In this process, two atomic nuclei that are considerably lighter, are combined to form a heavier nuclear, while releasing energy. 

It is a very safe, environmentally friendly, and clean source of energy that creates way less waste than the process of nuclear fission does. 

Types of Fusion Reactors 

There are several approaches to control and contain a fusion reaction to exist, but the two primary approaches based on confinement are the concept of magnetic confinement and inertial confinement.

Magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) reactors are the more advanced of the two approaches, as and in this they utilise magnetic fields generated by electromagnetic coils to confine a fusion plasma in a donut-shaped (torus) vessel.

Unlike magnetic confinement approaches, inertial confinement fusion (ICF) approaches attempt to externally heat and compress fusion fuel targets to achieve the very high temperatures and even higher densities required to initiate nuclear fusion. 

For most ICF concepts and approaches, high power lasers are used to compress and heat the fuel.

Recently, a third approach, which exploits the parameter space between the conditions produced and needed for magnetic and inertial confinement has gained traction in recent years and is receiving much scientific, and even commercial, attention. This is called Magnetised target fusion (MTF), sometimes known as magnetized inertial fusion (MIF), it looks to exploit the use of higher density plasmas than for MCF approaches, but lower power lasers and other drivers than those used in ICF approaches. MTF offers a unique route to fusion, and the accelerated development of several unique concepts has seen significant support.

Components of Magnetic Confinement Reactors

• Vacuum vessels are used to hold the plasma and to keep the reaction chamber in a vacuum.

• A neutral beam injector is used to inject particle beams from the accelerator into the plasma thus heating the plasma to its critical temperature.

• Magnetic field coils are used in magnetic fields, and the plasma is confined in the superconducting magnets.

• A central solenoid is used to provide electricity to the magnetic field coils.

• Cooling equipment is used to cool down the magnets.

• Blanket modules: These are generally used to absorb heat and high-energy neutrons from the fusion reaction.

• Diverters: They are used to exhaust helium products.

Advantages of Nuclear Fusion

Fusion is capable of powering the whole world at a very low cost since there is virtually limitless fuel available that can be used to make electricity. There is a lot of energy released in fusion rather than fission, therefore it would be more profitable if it is set up. Also when producing nuclear fusion energy, there is hardly any waste. As a result of this, there would be no money wasted in disposing and clearing of the wastes produced by the reaction.

Thus, Fusion is capable of powering the entire world at a much low cost, as compared to power sources used nowadays. It is a clean energy source that means no greenhouse gases and emitting only helium as exhaust. It is easier to stop nuclear fusion reactions as compared to fission reactions since there is no chain reaction in fusion.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Fusion

It would be very expensive to build a power plant to produce energy because Nuclear fusion can only occur between 14999726.85 degree celsius to 9999726.85 degree Celsius. (Or 10-15 million kelvin) Thus, there are no materials that can cope with 10-15 million K and also since it is a non-renewable energy. There can also be radioactive wastes.

Interesting Facts about Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is derived from uranium which is a non-renewable resource that we get from mining. 

In the 1930s, a scientist named Hans Bethe discovered the possibility of nuclear fusion and how it was an energy source for the sun. 

The energy generated from the process of nuclear fusion is abundant in supply, limitless even. 

The largest successful nuclear reactor is at the Culham Science Centre in Oxford.