Category: Political Science Notes

After reading this essay you will learn:- 1. Introduction to the Bureaucratic System 2. Characteristics of the Bureaucratic System 3. Advantages 4. Disadvantages.

Essay # 1. Introduction to the Bureaucratic System:

Much misapprehension exists in regard to the true character of bureaucratic system. In broader sense, the term is used “to describe any personnel system where the employees are classified in a system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus, departments and the like.” In this sense there is nothing wrong with the system and the preju­dices against it are unfortunate.

In much more restricted sense, the term is used to denote “a body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.” The Prussian Civil Service System is termed as Bureaucratic from this Stand-point. It is from the latter point of view that characteristics of the Bureaucratic system of Prussian type are discussed below.

Bureaucracy as a form of administration is to be treated differently from bureaucratic personnel system. If the former is a necessary concomitant to a large-scale organization, the latter is a pure recruitment pattern adopted by the ‘imperialistic’ governments of the past. As such, it may be used synonymous with autocratic personnel system.

Essay # 2. Characteristics of the Bureaucratic System:

(a) The services owe their appointment to the King and are respon­sible to him. The King recruits them and prescribes their conditions of service. They enjoy permanence of tenure as they can be dismissed only by the King. The people have no hand in the matter. The King makes his autocratic rule effective through these services.

It constitutes a distinct career as those of military and naval establishments. Special provisions exist for their education, training, and regular gradation of their positions. Prior to India’s independence, the Indian Civil Service and other services were organised on the basis of bureaucratic system because both their recruitment and dismissal were in the hands of King/Queen in Great Britain.

(b) Being responsible to the King alone, the services regard themselves as superior to the people. In such circumstances, the relation between the services and the people is reduced to that of the master and the slave.

(c) According to this system, public services not only perform executive but also legisla­tive and judicial functions. This is borne out by the fact that the public services in India in pre- independence days, who held memberships of the executive council of the Governor-General and Governors, were nominated to the Legislative Assemblies and were also appointed on high judicial posts.

Essay # 3. Advantages of Bureaucratic System:

There are only three advantages of this system. First, this system produces the highest degree of efficiency. It brings skilled mind to the solution of tech­nical problems. Second, it serves well as an instrument of political suppression.

The ruling country makes its will effective on the subject people through this system. The Britishers ruled India because of civil services which were organized on bureaucratic principle. Third, it secures unity and concentration of power so very essential for effective administration. A single will runs through all chords.

Essay # 4. Disadvantages of Bureaucratic System:

The disadvantages of the system overweigh its advantages.

First, this sys­tem has practically no place under democratic set-up because it exempts public services from popular control. The present trend is towards active participation of the people in the adminis­tration and as such, civil servants must carry the people along with. The public services have to be responsible to the public and responsive to their needs. This system is both irresponsible and unresponsive to public opinion.

Second, it causes a wide gap between the public servants and other classes of the society. The officials become snobbish and develop an overbearing attitude towards the people. The Indian civil Services in pre-independent era used to be given special training in mannerism and etiquettes in English Public Schools.

Hence they always suffered from a sort of superiority complex. This did not prove useful both for the public and the government in the ultimate.

Third, it contains within itself seeds of its own destruction. All the flaws of militarism are present in this system. It makes public officials not only unresponsive but also turns them hos­tile to the common man. Such a confrontation results in the end of this type of personnel.

Fourth, concentration of too much power with the public officials and the head of the administration turns them into tyrants and induces them to make use of power for their personal ends.

Last, history stands witness to the fact that this system has been used by the ambitious rulers like Roman Emperors or Bourbon Kings or British Imperialists to suppress individual’s liberties. Thus perpetuation of this system in the democratic age is out of date.

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Here is an essay on ‘Policy-Making in India’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Policy-Making in India’ especially written for school and college students. 

Essay # 1. Introduction to Policy-Making:

One of the essential functions of government is policy-formation. In the words of Dr.Appleby, the essence of public administration is policy making. Without policy, government and administration are rudderless. Policy is prior to every action. It is pre-requisite to all management.

It is the policy which sets the task for administration. It provides the framework within which all actions for the accomplishment of an objective are to be activated.Policy is in fact planning for action; it is getting reading for setting the sails to reach the desired destination.

Ever since Wilson wrote his essay on “The Study of Administration” published in 1887, politics-administration dichotomy school of thought tended to regard policy as outside the scope of administration.

In the words of Wilson: “The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics.” Wilson was followed by Good now and as late as 1926, L.D. White drew a distinction between administration and politics.

It is now being increasingly realized that politics-administration dichotomy cannot work and that administration cannot be completely divorced from policy-making. Luther Gulick was one of the first advocates of this view.

To quote Dr. Appleby:

“Administrators are continually laying down rules for the future, and administrators are continually determining what the law is, what it means in terms of action, what the rights of parties are with respect both to transactions in process and transactions in prospect…….. Administrators also participate in another way in the making of policy for the future; they formulate recommendations for legislation, and this is a part of the function of policy-making.”

Public officials are associated with policy-formation in three important ways:

First, they have to supply facts, data, and criticism as to the workability of policy to the ministers or to the legislature if the initiative for policy-making comes from them. The members of the legislature or the ministers are amateurs who have risen to positions because of the popular will and not because of administrative talent and as such, they have to give due weight to the suggestions of the officials.

Second, in many cases the initiative for policy or legislation emanates from the administration. This is because of the fact that it is the administration which is in constant touch with the general public and is in a better position to understand the difficulties that arise in the execution of legislation.

It has, therefore, to make suggestions and formulate proposals for removing those difficulties and in the process, it may have to, if need be, ask for amendments in the existing law or even for more laws. In such cases policy proposals emanate from the administration and legislature only puts its seal of approval on them.

Third, on account of lack of time and knowledge, the legislature passes skeleton Acts and leaves the details to the administration. It is here that administration is most supreme in policy-making.

In order to execute these Acts, the administration frames rules, regulations and bye-laws which is a major contribution to policy-making. It may, therefore, he said that there are two main types of policy-political policy and administrative policy.

Political policy is the policy made by the government. It is the general policy set out by the Parliament and political executive in pursuance of the promises made at the time of election by the party in power. Administrative policy is the form in which the minister, administrator or Board carries the will of the government into effect.

In the words of Dr. M.P. Sharma “…administrative policy is largely concerned with the determination and establishment of appropriate machinery and procedure for the implementation of legislative policies, setting the time-table or work programme of activities for guidance of its own staff through rules, regulations or orders, and taking precedent-making decisions on spe­cific novel issues which may arise in the course of day-to-day administration.”

Essay # 2. Basis of Policy-Making:

Policy, from whatever source-legislature or administration-it may emanate, must be based on factual data and accurate information. to the legislature, it is the administration which supplies the necessary information but wherefrom the administration obtains that information?

Broadly speaking, there are four ways through which administration collects the necessary information:

1. Internal Sources:

Every department is a centre to which flow periodic reports, re­turns, statements, accounts and various other materials from various field establishments. These reports and other material are recorded by the department for future use whenever the need arises.

Some departments employ special agencies for the collection of data in certain special fields. Several Ministries in India have made special arrangements and established special ma­chinery for the collection of statistics and data helpful for policy-making.

The Central Statistical Organisation, the National Sample Survey, the Bureau of Public Enterprises, Directorate of In­dustrial Statistics and various other organisations are working for the collection of information and statistics. The data so collected is properly processed, organized and interpreted to reveal certain facts essential for policy-making.

2. External Sources:

To supplement the internal data which may be insufficient, the administration takes to collecting information from external sources. It establishes contacts with private bodies, unions, associations, chambers, etc., in order to get a true picture of facts.

Inter­nal information is likely to be biased and hence inaccurate and unreliable because it travels through the official channels and the agency reporting it may not like to reveal all that is fact. In our country, the government does consult and tries to know the essence of public opinion through various labour unions, chambers of commerce, and other professional associations.

Be­fore the Five Year Plan is actually approved, the draft outline is thrown open for discussion to various bodies all over the country. The suggestions received are duly considered and incorpo­rated, where approved, in working out the final Plan.

3. Special Investigations:

Special investigations may be conducted by the appointment of Commissions and Committees of enquiry for finding facts in respect of a particular matter of field. Such investigations are very useful for policy-making as they provide the maximum thought in a particular field. Examples of such Commissions/Committees are numerous both in our country and abroad.

The Royal Commissions appointed from time to time in England, the Hoover Com­mission, in U.S.A., the Central Pay Commissions, the Universities Radhakrishnan Commission, the Local Finance Enquiry Commission, the Secondary Education Commission, the Press Com­mission, the Taxation Commission, the Monopolies Commission, the Administrative Reforms Commission, etc., in India are the examples of special investigating bodies.

These Commissions have specific terms of reference; they examine witnesses, both official and non-official and obtain facts and views which they convey to the government in the form of recommendations. These recommendations serve as the basis for policy-making and effecting reforms.

4. Research and Study
:

Research and studies may be organized by the Government and non-official agencies to discover certain facts and views. Administrative research may be con­ducted by such bodies like Division of Administrative Management in the Bureau of Budget in U.S.A., O & M in the British Treasury and in various other departments.

Organization and Methods Division in the Cabinet Secretariat with its cells in other departments in India. Simi­larly, non-official bodies like Brookings Institution, the Public Administration Clearing House in U.S.A., the British Institute of Public Administration and the Indian Institute of Public Ad­ministration also conduct researches and provide facts for policy formulations set up for the purpose.

The Geological, Botanical, Zoological Surveys of India, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, various laboratories devoted to research in building techniques, drugs, food, technology, electro-chemicals, metallurgy, mining, salt, etc., the Atomic Energy Commission, the Oil and Natural Gas Commission, etc., are some of the examples of institutions engaged in research.

Every modern government, anxious as it is to make improvements, has to depend on these research bodies for the mine of information and facts they supply. Every new policy must take cognizance of the new research and material provided by these bodies.

Essay # 3. External Influences on Policy Making:

Policies are not made in a ‘vacuum’, that is to say that policy-makers must take cogni­zance of various factors in formulating policies. They cannot act arbitrarily, more so in a demo­cratic country.

First, every policy must be in consonance with the provisions of the Constitution as interpreted by the law courts and the laws made by the legislature.

Second, every policy must take into account the prevailing customs, traditions and conventions of the people. That is to say that a policy must not be against established ways of life of the people unless it is extremely desirable to frame one for banning a social evil.

Third, a policy must consider the international law and the world opinion for no country can live an isolated life. International law is constantly becoming important and every member living in the family of nations must play the game ac­cording to rules.

Fourth, if a policy of a department affects the policy of some other department or organization, the department framing the policy must have prior consultations with the de­partment affected. Such a clearance is very important for the homogeneity of administration.

Finally, a policy must be framed after due consultation with the persons or groups of persons, their unions and associations and other interests likely to be affected by policy for this helps the policy-maker to analyze the difficulties likely to be faced in the execution of the policy.

Thus policies have to take into consideration several factors. In the words of Seckler- Hudson “Policies are arrived at, then, in all sorts of ways, conditioned by all sorts of matters.”

The various organizations that participate indirectly or directly in policy-formulation are the legislature, the executive, the judiciary through interpretations and judge-made-laws, top admin­istrators, political parties, pressure groups, people, etc. Policy-making is a continuous process.

There must be periodical review of the usefulness of a policy. A policy is useful only under certain circumstances. These circumstances change with time and a policy once very useful may become obsolete. The policy may be changed accordingly or a new policy must be developed. Nehruvian socialism is now being liberalized under the changed economic scenario of the coun­try.

Although policy may seem to be a decision of a particular body or department, in practice, however, the process is widespread all through the organization and the particular body an­nouncing it is the last link “of a long chain of previous history of the matter.” It is, therefore, a collective activity, a cooperative endeavour and an effort in which many people participate.

Gladden’ distinguishes four different levels in policy-making:

(a) Political or general policy framed by the Parliament;

(b) Executive policy framed by the Cabinet,

(c) Administrative policy, that is, the form in which the administrator works out the will of the government, and

(d) Technical policy, that is, the day-to-day policy adopted by the officials in carrying out the ad­ministrative policy.

The process of policy formulation consists of the following steps:

(i) Understanding and analyzing of the present environment, both external and internal;

(ii) Identification of policy alternatives to achieve the goals in the anticipated environ­ment;

(iii) Examination of the alternatives;

(iv) Elaboration of the consequences of various alternatives;

(v) Effect of alternatives and consequences on preferred values and norms;

(vi) Selection of policies.

Herein, it may also be mentioned that some American writers like David Easton, Lasswall and Drox have pleaded for the evolution of ‘policy science as a separate discipline which will accelerate the development of policy knowledge and contribute to better policy-making. This idea, however, it still in infancy stage.

Essay # 4. Organs that Participate in Policy-Making:

Policy-making is a collective activity in which many organs participate.

In our country, some of the important organs are:

1. Constitution:

Constitution is the supreme law of the land and every policy that is framed must be in consonance with constitutional framework. Being a very comprehensive docu­ment, it clearly lays down how the machinery of the government shall work, what shall be its objectives and what shall be its limitations.

The Preamble to the Constitution declares the objec­tives while Directive Principles lay down the principles according to which the machinery of the state shall frame policies.

2. Legislature:

Legislative assemblies enact laws to give effect to the policies laid down in the Constitution. Legislation is the declared will of the sovereign state and an expression of the popular opinion of the people.

The role of legislature is primarily that of vetoing and con­trolling policies because it itself rarely takes the initiative in sponsoring legislation. It influences and moulds policies through general discussions, adjournment motions, interpellations and reso­lutions, etc.

3. The Cabinet:

The cabinet is the chief source of policies in our country. It is the most important body and its meetings make every one await its decisions. It is the overall directing and controlling body headed by the Prime Minister. All important policies are approved by it. It works through several subject-matter sub-committees which report to it on specific matters.

4. Planning Commission:

Although it is a staff agency and hence an advisory organ to the Government of India, it exercises important influence over the formulation of policies relat­ing to the entire field of administration.

5. National Development Council:

National Development Council, consisting of the Prime Minister, a few Central Min­isters and Chief Ministers of all States, is also the supreme policy-making organ. It is said to have acquired a role of ‘supra-cabinet’.

6. Public Services:

Public Services, though mainly concerned with the execution of poli­cies, participate in policy making in so far as they advise and supply the necessary data to the Ministers for policy-making, give legislative form to the policies and lay down administrativ
e rules and regulations for giving effect to the approved policies.

7. Judiciary:

Through its power of judicial review and advisory power, the Supreme Court exercises influence on public policies.

8. Professional Associations:

Professional Associations, like the Bar Association, All India Medical Council, and Teachers’ Association also play a prominent role in formulation of policy in India.

9. Political Parties:

Through election manifestoes the political parties display their re­spective policies and make an effort to win the elections for implementing these policies. Besides the above organs, there are several other bodies which influence policy-making.

Mention may be made of the Advisory bodies such as Standing Labour Committee, Indian Labour Conference, Import and Export Advisory Committee, Central Advisory Board of Educa­tion, University Grants Commission, Pressure groups such as trade unions and chambers of commerce.

All these bodies advise, suggest and sometimes protest and demand correctives in regard to a particular policy. Under the impact of information technology, mass media is playing an important role in building pressure on policy-making.

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Read this essay to learn about:- 1. Structure of British Treasury 2. Functions of British Treasury 3. Control.

Essay # 1. Structure of British Treasury:

In Britain, the Treasury is the counterpart of the Bureau of Budget in U.S.A and the Ministry of Finance in India. But there are substantial differences between the structure and functions of Treasury in U.K. and those of Finance Ministry in India. The Treasury is much more than an organ of financial control. It has other traditional responsibilities also. It is not merely responsible for the financial policy of the government but the control of civil services is also vested with it.

It thus occupies a special position in the administrative organisation in U.K. The Treasury was first commissioned in 1612. The Board of Treasury was composed of seven Lords or Commissioners; the first Lord of the Treasury, second Lord (Chancellor of Exchequer) and five junior Lords.

Though the Board has not met since the middle of the last century, its statutory existence has not been disturbed and the treasury minutes continue to be issued in the name of the Lords of the Treasury. At present, the Prime Minister is the first Lord of Treasury. As Treasury is the Prime Minister’s department, it adds to its prestige and authority.

The Prime Minister, however, takes no part in the transactions of normal treasury business but concerns himself with the administration of civil service. The second Lord, the Chancellor of Exchequer, is the effective ministerial head of the Treasury and is responsible for the financial and economic policy. He is assisted by two Secretaries-the Financial Secretary and the Economic Secretary.

The former is associated with the handling of the government’s general financial business in the House of Commons and the latter with the policy relating to overseas finance, economic, currency and banking affairs. There are two permanent Joint Secretaries also in the Treasury; one is the in-charge of financial and economic works and the other is the m-charge of residual work.

These two Joint Secretaries enjoy higher pay and status than the permanent Secretaries in other departments. The Treasury also has four Second Secretaries, seven Third Secretaries and 12 Under Secretaries.

Essay # 2. Functions of British Treasury:

As the Treasury has to perform dual functions of Administration of Finance and Admin­istration of Civil Service, it has been split into two wings, the financial wing and the service wing The Financial wing is responsible for Financial Control and Economic Co-ordination and for maintaining the economic stability of the country and to this end, economic planning and allocation of priorities are included in its functions.

It initiates fiscal policy on the basis of economic situation prevailing from time to time. It collects the revenue and allocates supplies to the departments, it exercises control over the departmental expenditure in a general way and lastly it administers Public Debts, Banking and Currency.

This wing has three major divisions known as Home Finance, Overseas Finance and Supply Services and three sections of central economic planning staff, overseas co-ordination and economic section for coordinating economic policy. The Treasury is thus not concerned only with the control of departmental expenditure but with broader issues affecting national economy.

The Service Wing of the Treasury is responsible for policy relating to recruitment, promo­tion and retirement of the Civil Service. It deals with questions relating to their pay scales, conditions of service, grading of classes, etc. This wing has three important Divisions-The Establishment Division, the Organisation and Method Division and the Training and Education Division.

Essay # 3. Control of the Treasury:

The Treasury exercises control over finances in so many ways. Since 1861, the Treasury has been approving all estimates before they are presented to the House and has been exercising control over them even after the Parliament has approved them. All departmental estimates embodying departmental plans and policy are submitted to the Treasury for examination and acceptance.

This affords the Treasury not only the opportunity to assess them individually but also to have a broad view of the policy of department as a whole. It can effect such economies as are feasible in the estimates and expenditure before their presentation to the House.

Hence, it occupies a place of primacy among all other departments and as a recent writer said he power and unpopularity of the Treasury rise like twin Everest’s above the lesser peaks of the spending departments, with its call signal, once observed by Gladstone, to be “No, No, No” heard ringing through the ages.

It should, however, be noted that if there is a disagreement between a departmental minister and the Chancellor of Exchequer, the final decision is made by the Cabinet. The British Treasury has been portrayed by the critics as the best system of direction and internal control so far devised by human ingenuity.

The Treasury department is wholly responsible for exercising day to day supervision over the allocation of finance to the operating agencies. As a matter of fact through its sanctioning of money and employment of personnel it maintains a managerial control over work operations.

Further, the departments have no authority to incur expenditure in respect of any new service or even on any approved scheme beyond the amount authorized.

The Treasury will satisfy itself that the changes in expenditure are necessitated by new developments; only then it will allow the supplementary demands to be presented to the House, nor will it allow to transfer saving in one sub-head to another sub-head without such satisfaction.

In the past, the Treasury exercised strict control on every item of departmental expenditure within the scope and amount of appropriations voted but now this responsibility has been given over to the departments themselves. Responsibility for efficient and economical administration rests on the Head of the Department who is nominated by the Treasury as the Accounting Officer in respect of the department.

The Permanent Secretary of the department is thus at once the department chief and the Treasury representative. Where the departments have field offices, heads of these offices are nominated as sub-accounting officers. The head of a department is assisted in his work by a Finance Officer, who is a representative of the Treasury.

The Head of the department can overrule the Finance Officer, though in such cases, the papers of the case can be called and examined by the Comptroller and Auditor-General. Thus in Britain, both the administrative and financial services are integrated together within the department itself.

The last stage in the parliamentary control over the expenditure was provided under the Exchequer and Audit Department Act of 1866, which had created the post of the Comptroller and Auditor-General to ascertain whether parliamentary grants are utilized for the purpose for which they were made and with efficiency and economy.

This official is responsible to the Parliament and not to the Executive branch of the government.

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Here is an essay on the ‘Retirement of Public Servants’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Retirement of Public Servants’ especially written for school and college students.

Retirement of Public Servants  

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Essay Contents:

1. Essay on the Meaning of Retirement
2. Essay on the Aims and Objects of Retirement System
3. Essay on the Age of Retirement
4. Essay on the Salient Features of Retirement System
5. Essay on the Forms of Retirement System
6. Essay on the A.R.C. on Retirement Benefits

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Essay # 1. Meaning of Retirement:

Man cannot work efficiently after a certain age when he grows old and weak. After reaching this age, he needs rest and relaxation. With the creation of public service as a perma­nent career, it is desirable that the government should ensure its employees an easy and carefree life in their old age. It would cause untold misery and hardship to such personnel if no provi­sion is made to meet their financial needs.

In the words of Edmund Burke, “if the public servant is to see that the state takes no detriment the state must see that his affairs take as little.” He justified a system of pensions on the ground that “no man knows, when he cuts off the incite­ments to a virtuous ambition and the just rewards of the public service, what infinite mischief he may do his country through all generations.

Therefore, all countries have established retirement systems for their public servants.

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Essay # 2. Aims and Objects of Retirement System:

Prof L.D. White has rightly observed, “A retirement system for civil employees is prima­rily designed to facilitate the termination of employment of men and women whose powers have failed on account of age or disability by granting allowances for past services; to provide ben­efits to dependents in case of death; and to improve the morale of services by creating a sense of economic security. From the point of view of the employee, the retirement system helps to compensate for modest scale of pay, relieves anxiety for the future, and furnishes a convenient means of regular saving.”

Thus the retirement system is in fact an integral part of personnel administration. This is evident from the objects which it serves.

In the first place, it eliminates from public services those employees who, due to incapac­ity or old age, are unable to discharge their duties adequately. This is necessary in the interest of efficiency and economy in the service. Employment of men of impaired efficiency to do the work of an able-bodied man with sound mind means impairment of efficiency as well as finan­cial loss to the state exchequer.

From standpoint of the government as an employer, it seems desirable that provision should be made for retirement system.

Second, retirement of older employees from highest positions is essential to provide op­portunities for promotion to comparatively younger group of employees. The number of higher posts is limited. Lower level employees can be promoted to higher posts only if they fall vacant.

If the people at the top do not retire, there would be left no room for promotion. In the absence of opportunities for promotion, the public servants would not put their heart and soul in the work because the road to further progress stood closed.

Third, to inject new blood with fresh ideas in public services, it is necessary that older employees should retire so that room be provided for new entrants abreast of new ideas and the latest techniques.

Fourth, unless there is a retirement system men and women at a young age would not feel attracted to the public services. A system of pensions on retirement is a great source of attrac­tion for people who take to public services.

One of the reasons of so much craving for public services is the system of pensions after retirement though emoluments are hardly comfortable with those extended by private enterprisers and big business magnets.

Fifth, for retaining the best qualified persons in government service, a retirement system is imperative. A system of pensions on retirement boosts the morale of the employees who have not to worry for their sustenance after retirement. In the absence of retirement system, many officers may join the private enterprises and leave the public service.

Last, on humanitarian grounds also, it is desirable that employees who have become less efficient or are incapacitated for work as a result of physical disabilities consequent upon ad­vancing years, must not be made to retire from the service without adequate provision for the remaining years of life.

Justice demands that the state should look after its employees who have served it for about thirty to thirty five years. Thus the desirability of government making provision for the retirement of their old and incapacitated employees is irrefutable and quite justified.

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Essay # 3. Age of Retirement:

The age of retirement varies from country to country according to the climatic conditions and the average expectation of longevity of life.

The age of retirement is generally fixed by the statute but in certain important cases it may also be fixed by the Constitution (for example, the retirement age of the judges of High Courts and Supreme Court and members of the Public Service Commission in India has been fixed by the Constitution).

In the United States the retire­ment age of employees is 65 to 70 years, in Britain 60 to 65 years, and in India, 55-58 years later raised to sixty years for the Central Government employees by the BJP coalitional govern­ment.

In fixing the age of retirement two opposite viewpoints emerge out. According to one view ‘the retirement age should be as high as possible so that the full benefit of the accumulated experience of the employees may be obtained and pensions may have to be paid for as short a period as possible. This is the view of a large section of public servants.

The other view which is shared by the younger elements is that the superannuation age should not be raised high as it blocks the prospects of their early promotion and impedes entrance of the younger element in case vacancies are not created by retiring employees after certain age.

The Government’s policy of employing afresh the retired and superannuated employees if they are very indispensable (instead of increasing retirement age), is widely acclaimed.

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Essay # 4. Salient Features of Retirement System:

There are certain common features of all types of retirement system.

They are as follows:

(a) Retirement is compulsory at a fixed age. In certain cases constitution of the country fixes the age of superannuation. In India, for instance, the retirement age of the judges of the High Court and the Supreme Court and of the members of the Public Service Commissions both at the Centre and in the states has been fixed up according to the Constitution.

The em­ployees are required to retire at a certain age even if their physical fitness has not been im­paired. The climatic, temperamental and other features of the country are taken into consider­ation while fixing up the superannuation age. In India this age is 55 to 60 years, in UK it is 60 to 65 years.

In the universities the age of retirement is higher than in the Government service (62 years). Recently it has been raised to 65 years in our universi
ties.

(b) Every retirement system makes a provision for pensions to the members retired. They are paid wholly by the government but they cannot be claimed as a right and it can be withheld if the employee is suspected of subversive activities detrimental to the interests of the state or if he has acquired a foreign citizenship or has attempted to undermine the prestige of the government.

A public servant may be forced to retire due to physical disability or ill health. In that case, he is to be paid proportionate pension. For instance, the English Superannuation Act of 1948 makes a provision of this.

(c) Besides pensions, there are certain other benefits, viz., provident fund, insurance, etc., to which the employees are entitled after retirement.

In certain countries both pension and provident fund are allowed provident funds differ from pensions in two respects:

(i) Partially they are contributory and partially non-contributory, the government and the employee contributing half and half.

(ii) These benefits are paid not monthly but in a lump sum at the time of retirement.

The insurance systems are wholly contributory. These schemes may be compulsory or may be optional. Since April, 1950, the Government of India has introduced Provident Fund and Insurance schemes for its employees. In the initial stages, those who had rendered more than ten years of service were to be compulsorily brought under the scheme.

However, those who had put in less than ten years of service were given an option to be or not to be governed by this scheme. Presently all confirmed employees are required to contribute towards Provident Fund. Some state governments also have opted for insurance schemes for its employees.

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Essay # 5. Forms of Retirement System:

There are three forms of retirement systems, namely:

(i) Non-contributory,

(ii) Partly contributory, and

(iii) Wholly contributory.

Under the first system the government undertakes to defray the entire cost of making the retirement allowances. The employees are not called upon to contribute any money to the retirement fluid. Under the second system, the cost is partly met by the government and partly by the employees.

The contribution of the employees is secured through compulsory deductions from their salaries which is carried to a provident fund along with the government’s contributions. Under the third system the entire cost is met by the em­ployees through deductions made from their salaries.

Each of these systems has its merits. Many people are unwilling to accept the first system. They say that the employee is under the same obligation to make provision through saving for his future needs as the persons in private employment. They advocate the wholly contributory system.

On the other hand, some people maintain that the entire cost should be met by the government. Just as the government pays for the salaries of its employees, so it must pay for their retirement allowances which should be considered as a part of their salary. From the view­point of expediency it will do away with the expensive and complicated method of making deductions from pay.

Finally there are many others who look upon the responsibility as a joint one and advocate partly contributory system which occupies a middle position between the two extreme systems of non-contributory and wholly-contributory.

It is argued that this system will not unnecessarily burden either party and will create the spirit of making sacrifices in the em­ployees with the life span having gone up in India from thirty years to seventy years, the gov­ernment are facing constraints to meet pension expenditure.

Hence the old pension scheme has been revised. For employees appointed after January, 2002 it was made contributory transferring percentage of general Provident fund to the pension account of the employees.

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Essay # 6. A.R.C. on Retirement Benefits:

1. A civil servant may be permitted to retire voluntarily after he has put in 15 years of service.

2. Such Government employees who have been superseded should be allowed to retire even earlier on similar terms if they have served at least for ten years.

3. If a temporary employee remains in government service continuously for ten years or more, he should be entitled to pension and gratuity on the same scale as are allowed to perma­nent government employees.

4. The quantum of pension admissible should be raised to 3/6ths of the average emolu­ments of the last three years of service as against the existing 3/8ths.

5. The present ceiling of maximum amount of pension should be raised to Rs. 1,000 p.m.

6. The receipt of death-cum-retirement gratuity should be made optional.

Government of India and some State Governments accepted most of these recommenda­tions. In fact, they have further improved the Pension benefits to the advantage of employees and their families. The maximum ceiling on pension benefit for the family after pensioners’ death has since been enhanced by the Government in the recent past.

After the 5th Pay Commission retirement benefits of both the Central and the State gov­ernment employees were substantially enhanced as the pay scales of all categories of employees were increased considerably .

The 6th Pay Commission whose report was out in 2008 has again hiked the pay scales with effect from 1.1.2006 (i.e. retrospectively). The States have yet to follow suit. Pension benefits have also increased as per recommendations of the 6th Pay Commission. The maximum limit of gratuity has been increased from 3 lakhs to 10 lakhs. The commutation percentage also has been increased. Percentage of family pension has also been enhanced in case of central government employees. The states have followed the centre as regards hike in pay scales and also in the pension benefits.

The central government approved on November 20, 2008 a substantial increase in the salaries of executives and non-unionised supervisors of central public sector enterprises with effect from January, 2007. The chairman and the managing director of A category CPSE will henceforth be eligible for the Rs. 80,000 – 1.25 Lakhs pay scale against the existing 27750- 31500 pay scales. The revised basic pay scale for the lowest level supervisor would be Rs. 12600 – Rs. 32,500 as against the existing Rs. 6550 – 11,350.

On December 16, 2008 the Union Government announced the revision of payscales of university and college teachers. The centre will stand 80 per cent of the additional expenditure that states will be required to bear on account of pay revision. The pay scales are very attractive and are morale booster.

In order to redress the grievances of armed forces over anomalies in pay structures the Union Government on January 1, 2009 has constituted a separate pay commission. The govern­ment has placed Lt. Colonels in the Army and their equivalents in the Air Force and Navy at higher pay scales. They will be now in Pay Band-4 as done by the 6th Pay Commission whose report was implemented in September 2008.

It is evident that by and large the interests of all categories of employees have been safeguarded, so far as possible. Let us hope pay hike and better prospects help in the eradica­tion of corruption among the employees and improve the quality of work in Government offices.

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Here is a term paper on the ‘Delegation of Authority’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short term papers on the ‘Delegation of Authority’ especially written for school and college students.

Delegation of Authority

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Term Paper Contents:

1. Term Paper on the Meaning of Delegation
2. Term Paper on the Forms of Delegation
3. Term Paper on the Characteristics of Delegation
4. Term Paper on the Need for Delegation
5. Term Paper on the General Principles of Delegation
6. Term Paper on the Limitations of Delegation

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Term Paper # 1. Meaning of Delegation:

According to Mooney, delegation means conferring of specified authority by a higher to a lower authority. It means that delegation is the devolution of authority by a superior person to his agent or subordinate subject to his supervision and control. Legally, the delegated authority still belongs to the principal, but in practice, its exercise is allowed to the subordinate or agent.

Terry, however, does not agree with Mooney’s interpretation of delegation. To him, “delegation means conferring authority from one executive or organization unit to another.” Thus delega­tion is not essentially devolution from a higher to a lower authority. It can as well be from a lower to a higher authority and between equal authorities.

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Term Paper # 2. Forms of Delegation:

Delegation may thus be classified as:

(i) ‘Downward’ when the higher delegates to the lower as in the case of sales-manager delegat­ing to salesmen;

(ii) ‘Upward’ when the lower delegates to the higher as in the case of share­holders delegating to their board of directors; and

(iii) ‘Sideward’ when delegation is at equal levels as in the case of African tribal chiefs and their Central Tribal Authority.

Described in terms of degree of authority delegated, delegation may be:

(a) Full or partial:

Delegation is full when complete powers are conferred on the agent as for example, when diplomatic representative is sent abroad with ‘full powers’ to negotiate. It is ‘partial’ when he is required to get advice and guidance on crucial points from the delegating authority in his country.

(b) Conditional or unconditional:

Delegation is conditional when the action of a subordinate is subject to confirmation and revision by the superior; it is unconditional when subordinate is free to act without reservations.

(c) Formal or informal:

Delegation is formal when embodied in written rules, by-laws or orders; it is informal when based on customs, conventions and understanding.

(d) Direct or intermediate:

Delegation is direct when no third person intervenes between the two parties to del­egation; it is intermediate when it is made through third person. Intermediate delegation is rarely found. Mooney gives two instances of such delegation. They are the election of the President of U.S.A. by the people through electoral college and the election of the Pope by the congregation through council of cardinals.’

It may, however, be mentioned that delegation does not mean abdication of responsibility on the part of delegating authority. It is only delegated and not surrendered. Ultimately, it is the delegating authority which is overall responsible for the conduct of all those to whom it has delegated the authority.

In the words of Millett, “Delegation of authority means more than simply assigning duties to others in more or less detail. The essence of delegation is to confer discretion upon others to use their judgment in meeting specific problems within the framework of their duties. Management leadership must then accept the responsibility for how this discre­tion is exercised.”

Thus, delegation has a dual character inasmuch as it vests the subordinates with the authority to act in discretion and the delegating authority with the power to see that discretion is well exercised.

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Term Paper # 3. Characteristics of Delegation:

The following characteristics of delegation may be noted:

(i) Delegation is the authorization to act in a certain way independently but within the limits prescribed by the delegation.

(ii) Delegation has a dual character. As Terry has observed, “it is something like imparting knowledge you share with others, who then possess the knowledge, you still retain the knowl­edge too.”

(iii) Authority once delegated can be enhanced, reduced or withdrawn according to the changing circumstances.

(iv) One cannot delegate the authority which he himself does not possess. However, he does not delegate the entire authority, because if he delegates all his authority he cannot work.

(v) Delegation may be specific or general. It is specific when courses of action for spe­cific objectives are specified; it is general when these are not specified, though objectives are specified.

(vi) Delegation is an art. It has to be related with duties and responsibilities, personal factors in superior and subordinate, organisational objectives and policies and environment.

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Term Paper # 4. Need for Delegation:

On account of the following striking advantages of delegation its need becomes evident.

They are as follows:

1. Effective Leadership:

It helps the chief executive to devote his time and energy to more important decisions of the organization. Much of routine work is done at the lower levels and only important business is passed on to the leader. Effective leadership is made possible only through the process of delegation.

“One of the tragedies of business experience is the frequency with which men, always efficient in anything that they personally can do, will finally be cursed and fail under the weight of accumulated duties that they do not know and cannot learn how to delegate.” Delegation of authority is, therefore, the first principle of good leadership.

The need for delegation is illustrated by the Biblical story of Moses and his father-in-law, Jethro. Moses was overwhelmed with the heavy duties of ruler ship and Jethro advised him to select some able subordinates and delegate the authority to them.

Moses accepted the advice and “chose able men out of all Israel, and made them heads over the people, rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers often. And they judged the people at all seasons the hard cases they brought unto Moses but every small matter they judged themselves.”

A true organizer is the one who knows when and what to delegate. In the words of Mooney and Reiley, “… the real leader…finds it easy to delegate authority, and is quick to do so whenever he perceives its necessity, but he remains very conscious of the fact that there is one thing he cannot delegate, namely his own authority and the responsibility which it in­cludes.

It is in fact this very sense of responsibility which makes him so ready to delegate any task as soon as the total task begins to exceed his own unaided powers.

Such men are the true organizers; we might call them the born organizers. Organizing genius seems to know instinc­tively that it must operate through the principle of delegation in order to achieve a real collec­tive efficiency in the pursuit of the common object.” Delegation takes much of the unimpor
­tant work off the shoulders of the chief executive.

2. Immense Educative Value:

One of the duties of a manager is to build up his subor­dinates, to train them in the art of sharing responsibility and making decisions which is possible only through delegation. Delegation of authority has, therefore, much educative value.

The sub­ordinates develop greater loyalty and a greater identification with the organization if they are made partners to the exercise of authority. This helps to improve job satisfaction, provides them recognition and identity, builds up their morale and gives them the incentive to hard work.

3. Flexibility in Rigidities:

Delegation provides the necessary flexibility to the other­wise rigid procedures. Delegation helps to adjust procedures according to the needs of situa­tions. Millett illustrates this point by an interesting story. “The story goes that an officer was instructed to give an explanation of why a damaging fire had occurred on his post.

The officer is supposed to have ended his report with this sentence. ‘The rules were fully obeyed and the building burned down.’ No set of rules devised by man can ever be applicable to each indi­vidual future situation which may occur. It is general purpose and intent which organized groups must be concerned to realize, and which leadership endeavors to promote by its willingness to delegate.”

4. Economy and Efficiency:

Proper delegation of authority minimizes delay, makes ser­vice more effective, economical and efficient. These are the virtues of division of labour and delegation of authority.

To sum up in the words of White “Circumstances of magnitude and volume, however, require some delegation of authority, and the settlement of much business at the point where it arises. The convenience of citizens alone compels most matters to be handed outside Washing­ton. The avoidance of delay in administrative bottlenecks requires decisions at a hundred or a thousand field offices rather than in a single headquarters establishment. In some cases proper adjustment of policy and programme to local conditions requires discretionary field decisions. Certainly the delegation of authority means greater energy, a higher sense of responsibility, and better morale among field agents. They are not content to be mere messengers and reporters of their Washington superiors.”

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Term Paper # 5. General Principles of Delegation:

(a) Delegation should be written and specific.

(b) Authority and responsibility for each position in the management group should be spelled out and delegation should be made to a position rather than to an individual. Authority delegated should be proportionate to the task.

(c) Only that much of authority should be delegated as it is within the competence of subordinates to exercise safely.

(d) Delegation should be properly planned and be systematic.

(e) Systematic reporting system should be established with those to whom the authority has been delegated to ascertain that authority is being used properly.

(f) Policies, regulations and procedures should be well defined as to give no misunder­standing to the employees using discretionary powers.

(g) There should be free and open lines of communication between the delegators and delegates. This brings the superior and subordinates closer and can help solving many problems which come in the way of delegation.

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Term Paper # 6. Limitations of Delegation:

It may be mentioned that no leader can render himself superfluous by delegating all his authority to his subordinates. The degree to which delegation is possible varies from case to case depending upon the nature of the case, the circumstances and the responsibilities involved.

Generally speaking the following powers cannot be delegated:

(a) The supervision of the work of the first line or immediate subordinates;

(b) General financial supervision and the power to sanction expenditure above a specified amount;

(c) Power to sanction new policies and plans and departures from established policy or precedents;

(d) Rule-making power where it is vested in the delegating officer;

(e) Making of the specified higher appointments;

(f) Hearing of appeals from the decisions of at least the immediate subordinates.

(g) Through constitution, laws and political institutions authority to be delegated is re­stricted.

(h) Delegation to incompetent staff is avoided. However, this is not to be an excuse to keep authority concentrated in the hands of an Administrator.

(i) Smaller organisation and its narrower geographical coverage prevent delegation of authority.

(j) Delegation is not possible if conditions of work are unstable and change frequently.

(k) Delegation is not done if organization concerned is new or if it faces or is likely to face crisis.

(l)Lack of effective procedural system in internal communications and work controls make delegation difficult.

(m) Power of effecting co-ordination in the organisation vests with the manager. It can­not be delegated.

It may also be mentioned that in Indian administration there is lack of adequate delega­tion of authority to various executive levels.

Even matters of routine nature like sanction of long leave cases, leave travel concessions, journey beyond jurisdiction, applying abroad for higher studies, writing books, grant of annual increment, crossing of E.B., applying for fellow­ship, purchase of a plot for house construction, selling of property which can be easily decided at local levels by the head of the office, go to the Head of the Department or Secretary to the Dep’t. for necessary orders.

The result is that work piles up at the top causing delay in disposal. Many a time the employee is deprived of a good opportunity because his application was not forwarded in time to the concerned authorities by the Government. There is a high degree of control of subordinates’ task performance by the superiors. It is parental type in general and authoritarian in particular.

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Read this essay to learn about the procedure for training of civil services in India.

Prior to the attainment of independence, a coordinated and well-concerted plan of training of public services both at the Centre and in the provinces did not exist. They expected the employees to learn by experience.

However, the I.C.S. recruits used to be attached with the Oxford or Cambridge Universities for a year in order to attend a series of lectures on Indian history, Indian criminal law and procedure and some Indian language. In the words of Bapat, “There was very little in the training they received during probation which had any bearing on the job they would have to do as members of the Indian Civil Service.”

With the dawn of independence, the Government of India decided to pay some attention to the problem of organisation and training of the civil services. An Officers’ Shortage Committee was appointed in November, 1947 to go into the matter.

The Committee recommended for the establishment of a Directorate of Methods, Organisation and Training at the Centre with a view to supervise the training programme of the various departments. It also recommended the establishment of a training school for I.A.S.

In 1951, A.D. Gorwala also made a similar recommen­dation in his report on Public Administration. He suggested the creation of such a Directorate with two branches—one for the Organisation and Methods and the other for Training. Dr. Paul Appleby—a visiting American professor—also recommended the same in his report on Public Administration submitted to the Government of India in 1953.

Even Planning Commission re­marked, “Next to recruitment, the training of personnel has considerable bearing on administra­tive efficiency…” The Commission also recommended the appointment of Director of Train­ing for training programmes.

The Methods and Organisation Division was created and a Director of Training was also appointed. However, I.A.S. Training School had been established earlier in 1947. This school was eventually converted into the National Academy of Administration (at Mussoorie) which imparts foundational training to all superior civil services and also professional training to I.A.S. personnel.

As already said since 1972 it is known as Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration set up at Mussoorie. Besides some of the State Governments also have started training schools for training their fresh recruits.

The Home Ministry in 1956 suggested to all the State Governments to start Refresher Courses for officers of the All India Services and Central Services Class I and asked them to participate in the proposed scheme in order to break down service exclusiveness and to increase the utility of study and discussion of the subjects included in the syllabus for the Refresher Course.

A Refresher Course at the I.A.S. Staff College, Shimla, was started in 1957 for the I.A.S. officers with a standing of six to ten years. A combined course of I.A.S. Training School, Delhi, commenced from July 1959.

Thereafter, the Ministry of Home Affairs amalgamated the I.A.S. Training School at Delhi and I.A.S. Staff College, Shimla, and started a National Academy of Administration at Missouri on September 1, 1959. There are about 20 national institutes set up by the Government of India to provide initial and in-service training to train varied services.

The actual programme of training new recruits to All-India and Central Services is at present being carried out by the Central Secretariat Training School for recruits to the Central Secretariat services and the National Academy of Administration for the I.A.S. probationers.

New entrants to other All-India and Central Services are imparted a five-month foundational course at the Academy and then are sent to the Training Institutions for their respective ser­vices.

Such a course develops among recruits to different services a feeling of belongingness to common public service and a broad common outlook. After the completion of four months’ Foundational Course, the probationers of the services other than the I.A.S. are given institu­tional training in their respective training centres.

Since 1969, the Indian Government has started a new type of training, viz., and ‘sandwich’ course for the I.A.S. The fresh recruits to the I.A.S. have to undergo two spells of training at the Academy with a gap of one year which is utilized for practical training in the States.

At the end of this training, he is to come to the Academy for a second spell of training. At this stage, the probationers discuss the administrative problems they were confronted with or they observed during the practical training in the State. Training at this stage is more problem-oriented.

The Academy also organises short-courses, seminars, conferences, etc., for senior officers of fifteen years’ standing. Such courses are connected with the higher problems of government and deal with special subjects like social security, fiscal policy planning and inter-departmental co-ordination. Both the technical and administrative officers are invited to these courses.

Thus, the Academy takes up three types of courses, viz:

(a) A one-year course for the I.A.S. officers to cover the syllabus prescribed under the All-India Services Probationers’ Final Examination Rules;

(b) A six-week refresher course and

(c) a combined course of five months’ duration for the All-India Services and the Central Services Class I for imparting training in foundational subjects.

Such courses aim at widening the outlook of the probationers and other trainees. They are general in nature and make a provision for the imparting of general education in liberal arts to the personnel recruited for posts of specialized nature. This fills a big void which previously existed and is a step in the right direction.

Training of the I.A.S.:

The training of the recruits is first carried on in the National Acad­emy of Administration at Mussoorie. After the second spell of training at the Academy, the IAS probationers are required to appear at an examination conducted by U.P.S.C. Then they are placed under the supervision and guidance of a District Officer. After that, he is made in-charge of a sub-division.

He is purposely transferred from district to district after every two years and sent to the Secretariat for about eighteen months as an under-secretary. This is a prelude to leadership of a district.

According to a Report, “The object is to give a young officer a variety of experience before he becomes ripe for a senior post in the sixth or seventh year of service. The I.A.S. cadre is meant primarily to provide officers for senior posts; the appointment of officers to junior posts is intended mainly to train them for superior posts”.

In the first year or eighteen months, the training aspect is highlighted by demising a regular training programme which the probationer must undergo. It is after putting in six to seven years of service that a member of the I.A.S. is capable of holding the independent post of District Collector or an equivalent post.

It may not be out of place to point out that the quality of training imparted to the probationers in the different States is not uniform and leaves much to be desired. It is desirable that the Government of India should evince more interest in the training programme of the States.

Training for Indian Foreign Service (I.F.S.):

The I.F.S. recruit has to undergo a training programme for a period of three years in the Foreign Service Institute. He is attached to a district for some time to enable him to understand the practical work and undergo a period of secretariat training. I.F.S. training lays emphasis on the study of languages (Hindi and a foreign language) and of subjects, the knowledge of which is deemed necessary for
a member of the I.F.S.

Training for Indian Police Service (I.P.S.):

The I.P.S. recruits are trained at the Central Police Training College named after Sardar Vallabh bhai Patel, Hyderabad. Its name has under one a change. It is now known as Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel National Police Academy. The training of police officials comprises studies of crime psychology, scientific aids in detection of crime, methods of combating corruption and fire, and emergency relief.

After the completion of training, the probationer has to take an examination conducted by the U.P.S.C. He is then given a post of Assistant Superintendent of Police. Prior to this appointment he undergoes a year’s programme of training which means doing the work of various subordinate officers under guidance.

The Academy is headed by Director General of Police. He is assisted by Joint Director of General of I.G. Police rank, 3 Deputy Director of the DIG rank, 13 Assistant Directors and a few specialists.

Training for Indian Audit and Accounts Service (I.A. & A.S.):

The I.A. &A.S. are imparted training at the Departmental Training School at Shimla. The courses of study have a direct bearing on the work a member of the I.A. and A.S. has to perform. After the completion of this training, the probationer has to pass a departmental exami­nation on the subjects directly linked with his work.

It may not be irrelevant to point out that the probationer is imparted practical training during the Initial Training period by making him watch the work of the A.G. and keeping him attached to a district treasury and the P.W.D. divisional accounts office. It is a sort of training on the job. After passing the departmental examination, the probationer is posted as an Assistant Accounts officer.

Training for Income Tax Service:

The probationers of Income-Tax Service get training at the Income-Tax Training School, Nagpur. The pattern of training in their case is the same as that of the LA. & A.S.

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