Category: Political Science Notes

Read this essay to learn about the budgetary procedure followed in U.S.A. 

In the United States there was no coherent executive budget before 1921. The various departments prepared their estimates, sent them to the department of Treasury which consolidated them and sent them to the Congress without any scrutiny or co-ordination.

The consider­ation of the estimates by the Congress was not well-organised. The whole system was in a chaotic state. It was the Budget and Accounting Act 1921 which placed the budgetary process in the U S.A. on a unified and coordinated basis. It set up a Bureau of the Budget for the purpose of preparation of the Budget.

The budget procedure is now as follows:

The fiscal year in the U.S.A. begins on July 1, and ends on June 30. During the summer, the Bureau of Budget requests the various standing agencies to submit their estimates of ap­propriation for the ensuing financial year. The Bureau receives these estimates by the middle of September.

The estimates forwarded by the agencies are examined by the Bureau. The Bu­reau calls the official representatives of the various agencies, gives them a hearing and after such revision and review, as it thinks necessary, produces a unified and coherent budget. This budget is transferred by the President as his executive budget. The President submits this bud­get to the Congress usually in the first week of January.

When the House of Representatives has received the Budget from the President, it is referred to the Committee on Appropriations. There is no budget speech, because on account of separation of powers, the American executive is not represented in the Congress The Appro­priation Committee refers the various groups of items to several committees for detailed study and public hearings.

These sub-committees are organized on departmental lines. They work on the figures and if necessary call the various executive officials to explain their respective needs. Those opposing an appropriation may also be heard. When the sub-committees have finished their work each sub-committee drafts its own bill and reports to the appropriation committee.

The latter examines these bills and co-ordinates them in case they conflict with one another in the matter of policy or programme. Thereafter, it sends the various appropriation bills to the House. The House debates the bills and can make any changes in the estimates, but this is rarely done. The bills go through without a great deal of change.

After the House has passed the Appropriation Bills, they are sent to the Senate. In the Senate also they are referred to a Committee on Appropriations. The Senate Committee exam­ines these bills and may propose any changes.

The Senate considers the reported bills. It the Senate has made any changes, the appropriations are sent back to the House for concurrence, failing which they are referred to a Conference Committee consisting of representatives from both the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The revenue measures as prepared by the Bureau are considered by the Ways and Means Committee in the House. The House considers the bill reported by the Committee and after passing it sends it to the Senate where it has to pass through the Senate Finance Committee and thereafter the whole Senate.

The differences are resolved in the Conference Committee. The execution of the budget is looked after by the General Accounting Office headed by the Comptroller-General who enjoys freedom from the executive control.

To conclude, it may be said that the budgetary process in the U.S.A. is largely disinte­grated and un-coordinated. Instead of a single Appropriation Bill and a single Finance bill, there are several such bills. The separate bills make it difficult for the Congress to view the year’s programme as a whole. Secondly, any member of the Congress may propose an addition to expenditure. This is not so in India or Britain.

The Parliament can refuse or reduce a demand but it cannot increase a demand. The result is that when the budget emerges out of the hands of the Congress, very little of the original plan on which it was drawn in the Bureau of the Budget may be left in it. Thus the financial systems of U.S.A., India and Britain differ in several respects on account of their different political systems.

Upload and Share Your Article:

The Administrative Procedure actually means Office Procedure which everybody in the Government is required to follow. It is collected in a form called “Manual Office Procedure”. The office machinery starts functioning when some letter or application from outside reaches the department.

That letter or application is received by a clerk known as Receipt Clerk. The clerk registers that in the Receipt Register and the Receipt number is put on that.

The Receipt Clerk sends it to appropriate operating section. At this stage it enters in the File. It is sent to the Section Assistant who forwards it to the Section Officer with his note. The Section Officer puts his note upon it and sends it up to the Branch Officer who further forwards it to the Deputy Secretary. The Deputy Secretary passes it on to the Secretary or Joint Secretary.

Finally it reaches the Minister, Prime Minister and eventually to the President. This seems to be a simple procedure, though actually it is not so simple. The long and cumbrous office procedure has been well portrayed by Charles Dickens in his famous novel ‘Little Dorrit’.

He terms it the circumlo­cution office which had to go through “half a score of memoranda, half a bushal of minutes, several sacks of official memoranda and a family vault—full of ungrammatical correspondence…” Even then the case had not reached the decision stage because the “great art taught in that office and by the method of circumlocution, was how not to do it.”

He further says, “The Prime Minister, Minor Minister, Civil servants of all grades learn this art. All kinds of people—mechanicals, neutral philosophers, soldiers, sailors, petitioners, memorializes—and all kinds of sub­jects—wrongs, projects for the general welfare, all the business of the country went through the Circumlocution Office and method—except the business that never came out of it and its name was legion.”

There is no denying the fact that in between the receipt clerk and the minister or the President, there might be many coming-backs and going-ups. Each officer would add his own note, memorandum or minute. Old records would be looked into, precedents would be discov­ered, and information from various sources would be gathered.

The case may require consulta­tion and discussion with another Department, Ministry or State Government or even a foreign government or even private associations, groups or individuals.

Thus the file by this time becomes a file of correspondence, notes, minutes and memoranda. At long last, a stage for decision reaches. Thereafter, there begins the final downwards journey of the file. The return journey will not be so protracted if it does not fall in the hands of a sluggish officer.

Ultimately, the file reaches the Assistant who dispatches the draft to the typist. The typist types it, sends it to the examiner who passes it on to the section officer for signature. After his signatures are obtained the draft goes to the registry Office for dispatch and thereafter the file goes to the record office for record.

In this procedure, the File System and Records System require more elaboration:

(A) File System:

The entire office procedure revolves round the Filing System. The dictionary meaning of the term ‘File’ is a “line or wire on which papers are placed.” In the office terminology, it connotes a device for holding papers arranged for reference. It means the collection of papers pertaining to a question which is confronting the government for decision and action.

All papers are kept in two categories, viz., notes and correspondence. Correspondence comprises all com­munication received and office copies of outgoing communication. ‘Notes’ contain notes re­corded on a paper under consideration of a Fresh Receipt. They are arranged chronologically those reaching first kept at the bottom under separate covers. All communications are assigned serial numbers.

The material collected for the sake of understanding is given in the Appendix of correspondence. Likewise statements and information elucidating the points in notes are ar­ranged, separately under separate covers and are appended to Notes. The papers are thus ‘dock­eted’.

The whole set is then placed in a large folder with a folio sized cardboard to serve as the bed and the whole collection held by tape knotted on the top, correspondence being placed on the bottom and notes upon it. This makes a file. All files are registered in a File Register. One such Register is found in each department.

(B) Recording:

Recording means ‘the process of closing a file after action on all the issues under consid­eration has been completed. When action on the file is taken, it comes back to the Assistant who with the approval of the Section Officer classifies the file. Three classes of Files exist— Class A, Class B and Class C.

Class A comprises those files in which important questions have been discussed or which contain orders establishing important precedents or general instructions or ruling of a perma­nent importance and will be frequently needed by the Government for reference.

Class B comprises those files which contain orders and instructions of permanent impor­tance. They are not so often required for reference.

Class C includes files of ephemeral nature.

Further Class A means ‘keep and print’. Class B signifies ‘keep, but do not print’. Class C indicates—’Destroy after a specified number of years’.

After the classification of files, the Assistant sends them to the Indexing Clerk who in­dexes them. That makes the finding out of a file easy. Thereafter the Daftary of the section, after stitching it neatly, keeps it in the bundle of recorded files.

The File remains in the section for not more than three years. Thereafter, the File will be kept in the record room of the Ministry concerned. It will remain here for not more than five years. Later on, it will be dispatched to the Central Secretariat record room. Henceforth, it will become a permanent treasure of the National Archives.

It may also be relevant to describe the functions of various grades of officers working in the department:

1. Secretary:

The administrative head of a Ministry or Department is Secretary to the Government. He acts as principal adviser of the Minister on all matters of policy and adminis­tration concerning the department. His responsibility is indivisible and his responsibility is com­plete.

2. Additional Secretary/Joint Secretary/Special Secretary:

If the work of a Ministry is voluminous and beyond the manageable limits of a single individual one or more wings are created with Additional Secretary/Joint Secretary/Special Secretary as in-charge of the wings.-He is equipped with the maximum measure of independent functioning and is entrusted with re­sponsibility in respect of the business falling within the purview of the wing.

However, overall responsibility of the Secretary for the administration of the wing persists.

3. Director/Deputy Secretary:

The Deputy Secretary or the Director acts on behalf of the Secretary. He is made in-charge of a Secretarial division and is responsible for the disposal of Government business conducted within the division. Ordinarily he disposes of the majority of the cases under his own responsibility. It is his discretion to seek directions or orders of the higher officers on more important cases verbally or in writing.

4. Under Secretary:

An Under Secretary holds a Branch in a Ministry which comprises two or more sections. He exercises control over the Branch as regards despatch of business and maintenance of discipline. The sections under him send the work direct to him. He disposes of as many cases as possible on his own responsibility. However, on important cases he gets orders
of the Deputy Secretary or other higher officers.

5. Section Officer:

He is quite a pivotal officer. His duties are multifarious as given below:

(a) General:

(i) He is concerned with maintenance of discipline in the section.

(ii) He is to coordinate the work of the section.

(iii) He is responsible for assigning work to the assistants as evenly as possible.

(iv) He is to assist, advise and train the staff

(v) He is to maintain list of residential addresses of the staff.

(b) To Attend to Dak:

(i) He is to attend to the daily correspondence.

(ii) He is to pursue as to which receipts (Dak deliveries) are to be communicated to the Branch Officer and which are to be sent to the higher officers.

(iii) He is to see to the prompt movement of Dak and check any hold up.

(iv) He scrutinizes the diary of the section once a week and sees to its proper maintenance.

(c) Issue of Drafts:

(i) He is to see that drafts prepared are in perfect order and all corrections are duly effected before submission to higher authorities.

(ii) To see whether or not all relevant documents are attached with the draft (shown as enclosures).

(iii) To indicate priorities on the draft.

(iv) To explain mode of dispatch.

(v) To suggest number of spare copies required.

(d) To See to Expeditious Disposal of Work:

(i) He is to see that cases are not held up at any stage.

(ii) He is to see that arrears of work and other returns are submitted in time.

(iii) He is to appraise periodical returns every week and take prompt action on items necessitating attention next week.

(iv) To inspect Assistants’ tables to ensure that no paper or file have been overlooked.

(v) He is to maintain a note of important receipts and keep a regular watch on progress of action.

(e) Independent Function-Ship:

(i) He is to take independent steps regarding procuring or supplying of factual informa­tion of a non-classified nature.

(ii) He is to issue reminders to negligent officials under him.

(iii) The government can authorize him to take any independent action.

(f) Recording and Indexing:

(i) To ratify the recording of files and their classification.

(ii) To supervise periodic weeding of unwanted spare copies

(iii) To ensure proper maintenance of registers in the section.

(iv) To review the file which is to be destroyed.

(g) Miscellaneous:

(i) To deal with important and complicated cases personally

(ii) To ensure neatness and tidiness in the section.

(iii) To see to the strict compliance with Departmental security instructions.

6. Private Secretary/Personal Assistant:

(i) He is to keep the officer free from the worries of a routine nature by:

(a) Mailing correspondence

(b) Filing papers

(c) Fixing appointments with his boss

(d) Arranging meeting and collecting information.

(ii) He takes dictation in short hand and transcripts it.

(iii) He is to screen the telephone calls and the visitors tactfully

(iv) He is to maintain an accurate list of engagement and meetings and keep his officer duly informed.

(v) He is p keep a note of the movement of files passed by his officer and other officers if necessary.

(vi) He carries out the corrections to the officers reference books.

(vii) He is to relieve the boss of much of his routine duties and assist him in a manner directed by him.

7. Assistant:

(i) He prepares a draft without unnecessary noting where line of action in a case is clear or where the section officer has given clear-instructions.

(ii) In other cases he puts up a note keeping in view as to whether all facts have been correctly stated.

(iii) He points out any mistakes or misstatements of the facts.

(iv) He draws attention to precedents or rules on the subject.

Upload and Share Your Article:

After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Introduction to Ministry of Home Affairs 2. Organisation of the Ministry of Home Affairs 3. Functions. 

Introduction to Ministry of Home Affairs:

The Ministry of Home Affairs has always been in the nature of mother ministry in the Government of India. It has attained unique prestige among the other ministries as it holds pivotal position in the administration of the country.

The Ministry of Home Affairs deals mainly with matters belonging to maintenance of peace and public tranquility and the manning and administration of public services. It is also responsible for the administration of Union Territories. Article 355 of the Indian constitution enforces the Union to safeguard every state against External aggression and internal disturbance.

In pursuance of these obligations the Ministry of Home affairs assists with manpower and ex­tend it financial support guidance and expertise to the state governments. It consists of a Secre­tariat headed by a Secretary who is assisted by additional secretaries, joint secretaries and under secretaries, seven attached offices and eleven subordinate offices.

It is in the charge of a Cabi­net Minister who is assisted by a Minister of State and a Deputy Minister.

Organisation of the Ministry of Home Affairs:

According to one of the latest reports of Government of India the Ministry of Home Affairs comprises:

(i) The Department of Internal Security-dealing with police law and order and rehabilitation.

(ii) The Department of States-dealing with center-states relation interstate relations union territories and freedom fighters pension,

(iii) The Department of official language dealing with the execution of the provisions of the constitution concerning officials language and the provisions of the official language Act 1963,

(iv) The Department of Home dealing with the notification and assumption of office by the President and Vice-President, notification of appointment of the Prime Minister and other ministers,

(v) Department of Jammu and Kashmir,

(vi) Department of Border Management which deals with the management of borders including coastal borders.

The work of the Ministry is organised in the following Divisions:

(1) Administrative and O & M Division;

(2) Administrative Vigilance Division;

(3) All India Services Division;

(4) Central Secretariat Services Division;

(5) Establishment Division;

(6) Establishment Officer’s Division;

(7) Emergency Relief Division;

(8) Foreigners and Citizenship Division;

(9) Judicial Division;

(10) Police Division;

(11) Political Division;

(12) States Reorganization Division;

(13) States Reorganization (Services) Division;

(14) Union Territories Division;

(15) Union Territories (Legislative) Division;

(16) Official Language Division;

(17) Kashmir Division;

(18) Welfare Division;

(19) Finance and Accounts Division;

(20) Manpower Directorate;

(21) Public Division;

(22) Public Grievance Division;

(23) Training Division;

(24) Joint Consultation and Compulsory Arbitration Division;

(25) Secre­tariat Security Organisation; and

(26) Research and Policy Division.

The Seven Attached Offices are:

(1) Central Intelligence Bureau;

(2) Central Bureau of Investigation;

(3) National Acad­emy of Administration;

(4) Secretariat Training School;

(5) Office of the Registrar-General;

(6) Central Reserve Police; and

(7) Border Security Force.

The Subordinate Offices are:

(1) National Police Academy;

(2) Directorate of Coordination (Police Wireless);

(3) National Fire Service College;

(4) National Civil Defence College;

(5) Indo-Tibetan Border Police;

(6) Regional Registration Office;

(7) Mobile Civil Emergency Force; and

(8) Regional Offices, Hindi Teaching Scheme.

There is one Central Vigilance Commission.

The Advisory Committees are:

(1) Central Establishment Board;

(2) Emergency Relief Organisation Central Advisory Committee;

(3) Advisory Committees for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, and Chandigarh.

There is a consultative committee of the members of Parliament attached to the ministry. The committee meets under the chairmanship of the Home Minister to discuss matters pertaining to the Ministry.

The Secretariat staff consists of Secretaries, Additional Secretaries, one Director-General, Civil Defence, Joint Secretaries and Establishment Officer, Deputy Secretaries; Chief Welfare Officer; Director, Research and Policy; Chief Security Officer; Deputy Secretaries; Deputy Directors of Training; Deputy-Director-General, Civil Defence; Deputy Director-General, Home Guards; one Senior Staff Officer; Fire Adviser; Secretary, Delhi Flood Control Committee; numerous Under Secretaries; Security Officer; O.S.D. (Parliament); Secretary, Central Secretariat Sports Control Board; two Assistant Director-General, Civil Defence; one Assistant Director-General, Home Guards; and Senior Research Officer etc. etc.

The Ministry of Home Affairs enjoys key position and is considered ‘sanctum sanctorum’ of the Government of India. However, it no longer is the envy of the top civil services as they are more allured by the ministries dealing with economic affairs. The ministry has lost a few of its functions during the past years. For instance a separate ministry to deal with personnel, public grievances and pension was created.

Likewise in 1985 the welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes was entrusted to Ministry of Welfare.

This was not said to be a rational step. According to an authority on the Discipline, “The Home Ministry’s association with the work relating to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes kept in sight both the stick and carrot. The Home Ministry’s dealing point at the state level is generally the Chief Minister himself and the latter’s association with matters relating to these deprived castes invests it with political importance.”

Functions of Home Ministry:

Its functions are multifarious some of which are as follows:

(1) To issue notification of election of the President and Vice President.

(2) To grant par­don, reprieve and suspension or commutation of death sentence.

(3) Establishment and formation of new States.

(4) To issue notification of appointment and resignation of the Prime Minister and other ministers and parliamentary secretaries in the Central Government.

(5) To frame model rules of business of State Governments.

(6) To issue notifications of appointment, resignation and removal of Governors.

(7) Administration of Union Territories.

(8) To man Border Security Force.

(9) To deal with matters relating to the emergency provisions of the Constitution

(10) To deal with matters relating to the rulers of former Indian States.

(11) To deal with matters pertaining to code of conduct of legislators.

(12) To control Intelligence Bureau.

(13) To deal with Preventive Detention cases.

(14) To deal with citizenship and immigration cases from foreign and common­wealth countries.

(15) To deal with code of conduct for ministers with legislators.

(16) To deal with census of population.

(17) To deal with matters of Indian Police Service.

(18) To deal with matters pertaining to Central Industrial Security Force; Central Reserve Police; Civil Defence.

(19) To deal with matters relating to national integration.

(20) To deal with affairs concerning the Stat
e of Nagaland.

(21) To deal with criminal law and procedure.

(22) To deal with emoluments, allowances, privileges etc. in respect of leave of absence of the Governors and the President, salaries and allowances of ministers, deputy ministers and parliamentary secretaries of the Union.

(23) To deal with matters relating to Industrial security force of centre.

(24) The deal with the terrorists menace who constitute potential danger to our security.

Evidently the functions of the Home Ministry are enormous and clearly indicate its pivotal position in the country.

Upload and Share Your Article:

Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Panchayati Raj’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Panchayati Raj’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Panchayati Raj

---

Essay Contents:

1. Essay on the Inauguration of Panchayati Raj (1959)
2. Essay on the Political Organisation of the Panchayati Raj
3. Essay on the Assessment of Panchayati Raj
4. Essay on the Recent Attempts to Revitalize the System and Emergence of New Panchayat System
5. Essay on the Significance of 73rd Amendment Act

---

Essay # 1. Inauguration of Panchayati Raj (1959):

In 1959 Panchayati Raj was inaugurated. The Panchayats which formerly acted in advi­sory capacity to the community development programme now undertook to assume full respon­sibility for carrying it ahead.

The Balwant Raj Mehta Committee was set up by the National Development Council in 1957 to enquire into the questions of economy and efficiency and suggest measures for the re-organisation of Community Development Programme, National extension Service.

The Committee suggested a three-tier system of rural local government. It was termed as “Democratic Decentralization” which ultimately began to be called as ‘Panchayati Raj- In the words of Waghmare, “Panchayati Raj is the three-tier structure of the rural local government at the village taluka and district level based on democratization and devolution of powers and resources for the specific purposes of planning and implementation of community development programme with the active, spiritual, spontaneous participation of the rural people.

The following were the main recommendations of the Mehta Committee:

Recommendations of Mehta Committee:

(1) The development work within a local area was to be entrusted to a statutory consti­tuted body known as Panchayat samiti.

(2) The Panchayat Samiti was to be constituted of the Presidents of the Panchayats and some co-opted members from scheduled castes and women etc. Every state could evolve its own mode of constituting the Panchayat samiti. The M.Ps and M.L.As from that constituency were to be associate members. The S.D.O. was to be the Chairman of the Samiti till the elected Chairman took over.

(3) The Zila Parishad was to consist of all the Chairmen of the Panchayat Samities and M.L.As and M.Ps from the District and some co-opted members. They were to elect their own Chairman. The Collector was to be a member of the Parishad. The Zila Parishad had to act as an advisory, coordinating and supervisory body though more functions could be devolved upon it.

(4) The budgets of the Panchayats were to be scrutinized by the Panchayat Samiti and those of panchayat samities by the Zila Parishad.

(5) The functions of the Panchayat Samiti were to comprise of all the functions performed by the N.E.S. block and those of the District Board.

(6) The Panchayat Samiti was to enjoy independent sources of revenue.

(7) The B.S.D.O. had to work as the Executive Officer and Secretary of the Panchayat Samiti.

(8) At the village level, the Panchayats served as the main agency of development work.

(9) The village level worker was to be the development secretary of the panchayats.

(10) The State Government was empowered to exercise control over these bodies. It could suspend them.

The Mehta Report is considered a historic document. It is described as the ‘master blue­print’ and a sort of ‘Bible of Panchayati Raj’. In the words of R.L. Khanna, “It is bold and imaginative attempt to inaugurate viable and virile rural self-government, an earnest effort to translate into four square reality Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of the Panchayati Raj. It envisaged a revolutionary experiment in democratic decentralization. It is a testament of faith in democracy, a grassroots approach to administration.”

Rajasthan and Andhra were the first states to opt for democratic decentralization. By the end of 1963, Panchayati Raj was established in most of the Indian states. It was hoped that by 1964-65 all the states of India would have enacted legislation for the introduction of panchayats in their areas.

However, the target could not be hit within the stipulated time. The legislations regarding the Panchayati Raj were in accordance with Mehta Committee’s report, but as ex­pected inter-state variations in the unit of devolution and structural design were discernible.

An analysis of these legislations reveals that there were two broad issues regarding the constitution of the bodies:

(i) Should the unit of devolution be district or Block or both be adopted as units of decentralization;

(ii) Should the members be directly elected or the membership be indirect or should they be elected in both ways. Maharashtra and U.P. favoured the district, as the unit of devolution whereas Gujarat, Bihar, Punjab and Andhra opted for a mixed system.

Madras and Rajasthan stood for Panchayat samities as the unit of devolution though they retained the district body as an advisory, supervisory, coordinating and grant distributing agency.

Madhya Pradesh, Mysore, Orissa and Assam followed the Rajasthan pattern. Regarding the modes of constituting these bodies, there were three patterns adopted by the states. In some, indirect election method was preferred due to its inherent simplicity, convenience and building up of organic link with the base tier.

The Direct Election was the favourite in some other states due to the key element of responsibility, responsiveness and peoples’ interest contained in it. The mixed system claimed to embody merits both without the flaws of any.

Mysore adopted Direct Election method whereas Rajasthan, Andhra, Assam, Madras, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Gujarat stood for indirect system. Maharashtra opted for a mixed system, though with a bearing towards the Direct sys­tem.

Though Panchayati Raj legislation and its implementation came like an emotional upsurge yet crisis of village panchayats did not come to an end. According to Balwant Rai Mehta Committee’s Report, “The number of Panchayats which are torn by faction or in which squabbles are rampant is large, Panchayat elections have resulted in creating or aggravating rivalries in about one-third of the villages in which there is a contest separatism arising out of caste distinction is on increase. In practice economically weaker sections have no voice in the affairs of the panchayats.”

In some cases, they are in debt to a sarpanch who is often a man of influence. Unanimity of elections remained a far cry on account of prospects of power at Panchayat samiti and District level. Political parties exploited local factions to find a foothold in the rural areas.

Three most important problems pertaining to panchayats started haunting the minds of the Indian politicians-the paucity of finances, spread of factious spirit and the character of emerging leadership.

A study team was appointed by the Ministry of Community Development in June, 1962 to go into these questions. The team recommended the statutorization of Gram Sabha and earmarking of distinct functions of control regarding budget, taxation, and annual programme and construction projects of the Panchayats, to it.

It also recommended that Gram Sabha meetings be attended by some responsible officials and non-officials from the Samiti and the Gram Sabha should take up planning production programmes. Another study team was deputed to make an appraisal of Panchayati Raj finances in July, 1962. The committee submitted its report in 1963.

Its recommendations pertained to:

(1) Resources of the Panchayats,

(
2) Expenditure of the Panchayats,

(3) Resources of the Panchayat samitis,

(4) Zila Parishad,

(5) Loans to Panchayati Raj bodies,

(6) Budget, Accounts and Audit, and

(7) General.

Before we make an analytical appraisal of the Panchayati Raj in India, it is essential to explain political organisation of the three-tier system, commonly known as Democratic Decen­tralization or Panchayati Raj.

---

Essay # 2. Political Organisation of the Panchayati Raj:

Though there is a basic similarity of structure in the Panchayati Raj Legislation introduced throughout the country yet some variations in the pattern on account of peculiarities of the historical evolution of the Local self-government institutions and differences in rural setting cannot be denied. Most of the states have adopted the three-tier system as recommended by the Mehta Committee Report.

The village Assembly or Gram Sabha has been statutorily recognised in all states except Kerala, Madras and Mysore. In Bengal the panchayat Unions constituted for a group of panchayats have been retained as an intermediate-tier, between village panchayat and panchayat samiti. In other words, in Bengal four-tier system prevails.

The intermediate tier in Andhra, Bihar, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab and Rajasthan is termed as Panchayat Samiti. In Assam, it has been named as “Anchalik Panchayat” and in Bengal “Anchalik Parishad”. In Gujarat, Mysore, Madhya Pradesh, U.P., Madras, it is named as “Taluk Panchayat”, “Taluka Board”, “Janpada Panchayat”, “Kshetra Samiti” and “Panchayat Union Council” respectively. Likewise the District level body also has been differently named. In Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh it is known as “Zila Panchayats”, in Madras and Mysore it is termed as District Development Council and in Assam it is named as “Mohkuma Parishad”. In rest of the states “Zila Parishad” name has been adopted.

1. The Gram Sabha (Village Assembly):

The Gram Sabha or village assembly lies at the base of Panchayati Raj superstructure. It consists of all the adult citizens who have been entitled to vote. According to the laws of most of the states, Gram Sabha is called at least twice a year usually after Rabi and Kharif crops are harvested.

In Jammu and Kashmir and Orissa, it meets only once a year. In some other states its meeting can be convened if certain proportion of the voters (1/5 in most cases) requisition it.

The village Panchayat owes responsibility to the Gram Sabha. It presents its budget ac­counts of the last year and annual administrative report before Gram Sabha. Projects of local development proposals for taxation and village production plan have to secure the approval of Gram Sabha before it is implemented by the Panchayat.

In Punjab, Bengal, Gujarat and Assam, Village Panchayat is elected by Gram Sabha. In Bihar, Gram Sabha elects 50 of the members of the executive council and its President.

Evaluation of the Working of Gram Sabha:

The Gram Sabha has not been an active body. Its attendance is generally thin probably because of low level of political education of the members and too much diffusive character of its membership. Proposals are afoot to strengthen the working of Gram Sabha so that it could effectively control the Panchayati Raj leadership.

Giving it right of recall and making its meet­ings more effective and attractive are some of the important proposals which may be given due consideration. In fact, Gram Sabha is as yet in an infant stage and necessitates constant nurture before it can develop into a basic organ of Panchayati Raj.

Through the political education of the masses, larger participation in development programmes, more effective control over panchayat leadership and better mobilization of resources. Gram Sabhas can be made more effective centres of political energy.

It is expected that Panchayats heed to the advice and suggestions of the Gram Sabha without reducing themselves to mere executive bodies. Likewise, Panchayat Samiti can lend dignity to Gram Sabha if Pradhan, Vikas Adhikari or some other senior officers attend its meetings and render advice to it.

2. The Panchayats:

Prior to the launching of community projects and till the end of the First Plan, Panchayats were primarily institutional devices entrusted with functions of minor importance-settling of minor disputes and restraining wasteful litigation in the courts, looking after sanitation, maintaining drinking water wells and repairs of community works.

The panchayats undertook to stimulate and sustain the tempo of local development activities when community project administration emerged out. It was not realised that a permanent agency alone can mobilise local citizens for a specific project.

At a later stage, i.e., 1959 onwards, the Panchayats assumed new role of increasing agricultural production by laying down village uplift plans and seeing to their implementation with the assistance of the village level worker and the Block Agency. In order to enable them to concentrate on development work, judicial functions were vested with Nyaya Panchayats.

How to Improve Panchayat Resources ?

The paucity of panchayats funds poses a big problem.

The following methods can be adopted for improving the resources of the panchayats:

(1) Further utilization of the existing sources of self-raised income can augment panchayat income. An independent agency may be set up for assessing the liabilities, toning up collection machinery, plugging the leakages and punishing the defaulters, i.e., the evaders of taxes.

(2) Panchayats should man their resources a bit more vigorously. Through common land, common grazing grounds, small irrigation works and fisheries considerable additional income is possible.

(3) Steps should be taken to have panchayat undertakings and panchayat utilities. For example, construction of or letting out of residential houses, markets, hotels, cinema houses, shops, etc. can be fairly fruitful enterprises for the Panchayats. Loans on liberal terms can be procured to build up the panchayat enterprises.

They may pur­chase tractors, bore-well units, thrashers, etc., to be hired out or initiate small-scale undertakings for processing agricultural or animal husbandry produce. Once they are built up, the returns which are apt to be substantial can be utilized to pay off the principal and the interest.

(4) Government grants must be enhanced. If the sources suggested are tapped and the government also extends grant liberally, the per capita income of panchayats will certainly go up. Lofty expectations from the panchayats might be frustrated if sin­cere efforts to raise per capita income are not made.

3. Nyaya Panchayats:

With the ever increasing developmental role of the Panchayats, it was realised that their judicial functions should be assigned to a separate body. Moreover in the interest of equitability and impartiality of justice, separation of judicial functions from the executive was thought indispensible. this resulted in the emergence of Nyaya Panchayats as separate entities.

4. Panchayat Samiti:

The emergence of Panchayat Samiti as a new unit of rural local self-government and its blending with the unit for area development and planning is a remarkable achievement of Com­munity Development programme.

“Its architecture incorpora
tes some of the bold administrative innovations of our times namely coordinated team work between the specialists and general administrator, multipurpose worker strung with the functional specialist, official agency wed locked with the non-official workers.”

The acceptance of the Mehta Committee’s recommendations by the National Development Council in 1958 and the passage of the Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad Acts by Rajasthan in 1959 ushered in new era, in the evolution of relationship between the officials and non-officials. The Panchayat Samiti was established to share the responsibility of Community Devel­opment at local level.

5. Pradhan:

The Pradhan is the linch-pin of the new set up. He plays a vital role in enthusing the people and controlling the chief executive. He is elected by the members of the Panchayat Samiti and is removable by a vote of no-confidence by a special majority.

The indirect election of the Pradhan has resulted in worst type of blackmailing, corruption and questionable under­hand practices. In his absence, ailment or disability during the interregnum caused by Pradhan’s removal or resignation, Up-Pradhan acts as Pradhan.

Functions of Pradhan:

The following are the statutory functions of Pradhan:

(i) Convening and conducting the meetings of Panchayat Samiti as its President.

(ii) Exercising administrative control over Vikas Adhikari and his staff regarding imple­mentation of the decisions and resolutions of the Panchayat Samiti and standing committees.

(iii) Encouraging the growth of initiative and enthusiasm in the Panchayats and guiding them in making plans, carrying out production programmes and helping the growth of cooperatives and other voluntary organisations.

Powers of Pradhan:

In order to enable him to discharge his functions satisfactorily, the Pradhan has been vested with powers recognized by the statute as well as conventions.

They are as follows:

(i) He has full access to all the records of Panchayat Samiti.

(ii) He writes confidential report of Vikas Adhikari which is later on transmitted to the Collector.

(iii) He grants leave to the members of Samiti, subject to review by the Samiti and possesses other incidental powers of a presiding officer.

(iv) He is vested with emergency powers which he exercises in consultation with Vikas Adhikari under such powers. He can direct the execution of any work which nor­mally necessitates the sanction of the Panchayat Samiti or its standing committees but the immediate execution of which is in his opinion, essential for the mainte­nance of services and safety to the general public.

He can pass stay orders for the execution of any work, stating reasons for doing so. He can alter any programme of the Panchayat Samiti subject to the ratification of Zila Parishad.

However, these emergency powers are subject to two limitations:

(a) The act so directed should not contravene any orders of the State Government.

(b) The action so taken must be reported to the Panchayat Samiti or the Standing committee at its next meeting.

(v) He is an ex-officio chairman of the standing committee if he happens to be its mem­ber.

(vi) He is an ex-officio member of the Zila Parishad as well. In this capacity, he can influence the opinion of the Collector and district level officers regarding Vikas Adhikari and the extension staff.

(vii) The transfer of Vikas Adhikari and extension officers requires prior consultation with Pradhan.

Position of the Pradhan:

The Pradhan plays a vital role in the new set up. On account of support of a stable major­ity and the trust he enjoys of the ministerial benches, Pradhan has become a very powerful functionary. He is not easily removable as 2/3rd majority is required to oust him.

He can even unnerve a sarpanch with the assistance of a few of his loyal colleagues. Through his administra­tive powers, he can make his position envious. The support or hostility of a Pradhan may affect the chances of a standing MLA to a considerable degree.

Since he exercises administrative control over Vikas Adhikari, he can compete with the Vikas Adhikari regarding the latter’s authority over his staff. On account of his political links and his prominent place in political hierarchy, he can help the Panchayat Samiti in procuring financial assistance from the State Government and Zila Parishad and get over its financial and subsequently administrative difficulties.

The role of Pradhan as a President is also fairly important. A permissive Pradhan well aware of committee and meeting procedure can encourage the members to express their views freely and can bring about a true integration of views in arriving at a decision. The quality of decisions and the productivity of meetings depends to a great extent upon the balanced role of Pradhan.

Since the Panchayat Samitis and the standing committees meet only for a few hours once or twice a month they can hardly consider the action report thoroughly. The Pradhan supplies standing vigilance on behalf of the Samiti and its standing committees, and sees that their reso­lution and decisions are carried out properly.

An un-satiated Pradhan may distort it into an in­strument of interference which results in undermining administrative discipline, moral unity and efficiency. An indifferent and non-vigilant Pradhan may fail to discharge the duty of supervising and controlling the Vikas Adhikari properly. We can conclude that a Pradhan with progressive outlook, having a firm grasp over procedure.

Supported by a solid and stable majority, can prove to be a powerful functionary who can tone-up the Panchayat Samiti business and Panchayat Samiti administration. A Pradhan devoid of these qualities can hardly inspire the members of Panchayat Samiti and Administration with the requisite zeal and high standards of service.

6. Committee System:

A sound committee system provides opportunity to a larger number of individuals to par­take in decision-making. It helps in prompt disposal of causes and very thorough appraisal of issues. The Panchayat Samiti is not only an unwieldy body but also meets for a brief spell of time. Hence during its interregnum, the committees alone can look into broad details.

In Panchayat Samiti, the members of committees range from three to seven. However, in case of need, the Samiti can constitute more committees as well. Every Committee consists of usually not more than seven members.

The Panchayat Samiti is entitled to coopt not more than two persons to a standing committee from outside the membership of Panchayat Samiti from amongst the experienced and knowledgeable persons.

The Committee processes only delegated jurisdiction. The Panchayat Samiti can ask for any of their records or proceedings. It may with­draw, reduce or increase the powers of a committee. It is thus evident that the Committee’s position depends upon the confidence, the Panchayat Samiti reposes in it and the status of its chairman and the members, in the eyes of the other members.

Conduct of Business:

The State Government prescribes the rules for the conduct of business. The Vikas Adhikari in consultation with the Chairman prepares the agenda. Decisions are arrived at by majority. A casting vote vests with the chairman.

The Vikas Adhikari or some senior official on his behalf participates in the proceedings though does not possess right to vote. Members exhibit keen interest in loan applications or other applications for aid or procurement of a scarce commodity.

7. Zila Parishad:

The Zila Parishad is mainly an advisory, coordinating, fund distributing and supervisory body in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar whereas in Gujarat, Andhr
a, Maharashtra, Punjab and U.P. it is equipped with executive functions like health, edu­cation, social welfare etc.

In the rest of the states, the Zila Parishads have inherited numerous executive functions from the former district boards and district school boards. In 1987 there were 297 Zila Parishads.

8. Roles of Collector:

i. A collector co-ordinates the work of various development departments of the state government at the district level.

ii. He examines the extent of progress achieved in the execution of various schemes and implementation of the decision and resolution of the Zila Parishad and suggests improvements.

iii. He is to see to the proper utilization of funds by the Panchayat Samitis and their maintaining minimum standards of service.

iv. He is to see that Vikas Adhikari and his staff play their role properly.

v. A collector can inspect and call forth any record, report or information from the other local bodies.

vi. He can ask the Samiti or Parishad to consider any objection or information which he considers essential to be taken into account.

vii. As a watch-dog of the State and Central Government at district level, the Collector exercises regulatory powers on behalf of the State Government except the powers of superses­sion, dissolution, rule-making power for effecting revision and review under exceptional circum­stances and also suggesting amendment of schedules.

viii. He is responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the district. Hence Panchayat Samitis’ and Zila Parishads’ areas come under his purview for this purpose.

ix. He has been vested with special responsibilities regarding the election of the President and Vice-President of the Samiti or Parishad, co-option of members and administration of oath.

x. A collector presides over the extra-ordinary session of the Panchayat Samiti specially con­vened to consider no-confidence motion against the Pradhan.

xi. He is to see that the technical assistance is made available to the extension officers by the corresponding departments of the State Government.

xii. He assists the Panchayat Samitis in the early recovery of dues.

xiii. He is to see that adequate provisions are made by Panchayat Samitis to recover and repay the loans advanced by the state government to the Panchayat Samitis.

xiv. He is to see and report to the State Government whether the priorities in the Plan are being adhered to and whether the general pattern of work is in conformity with the policies laid down by the State and the Central Governments.

xv. A collector can suspend the resolution of a Panchayat Samiti or a Panchayat in the event of immediate threat to human life, health, safety or public order.

xvi. In an emergency, he can direct or provide for the execution of any work which is essential for public safety.

Thus it is obvious that his powers as guardian of law and order and district development officer are fairly imposing. However, since Zila Parishads have been vested with executive pow­ers and a senior I.A.S. officer is their Executive Officer, the Collector’s powers of inspection, suspension and direction have been transferred to the Commissioner.

Still the Collector is al­lowed certain emergency powers and submit a report to the Commissioner if he feels that the situation necessitates action on his part. Besides, he is the head of revenue and general admin­istration at district level. Hence his contribution is apt to be of immense importance for the harmonious functioning of the Panchayati Raj institutions with the Zila Parishad, as its spear­head.

---

Essay # 3. Assessment of Panchayati Raj:

An analytical survey of the three-tier system reveals that Panchayati Raj is a dull echo of its former self Scholars are of the view that India is on the way to have a strong rural admin­istration, rather than an effective rural government.

The three-tier system has been working in the different parts of the country for the last 45 years or so but certain glaring shortcomings were evident viz., lack of clear and scientific distribution of functions at the various levels; domination of higher structure over the subordinate structures; undue interference of the state governments and curtailment of autonomy of these institutions; lack of adequate finances; scant attention to the views and aspirations of people by the officials; parochial thinking on account of politicization of the Panchayati Raj Institutions; indirect election of the Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads and the presence of the ex-officio members not in consonance with demo­cratic principles; tight control of the government over the Panchayti Raj Institutions.

Keeping in view these facts, a committee on Panchayati Raj Institutions under the Chair­manship of Ashok Mehta was appointed in December 1977 by the then Janata Government. It submitted its Report in August, 1978 making about 132 recommendations.

The main recom­mendations pertained to:

(a) Functional necessity for decentralization of administration though under democratic supervision;

(b) Two-tier system of Panchayati Raj viz. the revenue District assuring the technical expertise of high order required for rural development and the Mandal Panchayat to be constituted by grouping a number of villages;

(c) The Panchayati Raj Institutions to have compulsory powers of taxation and mobilize their own resources, thus re­ducing their dependence on diversion of funds from the state government. Certain taxes col­lected from the area such as provision tax, entertainment tax and special tax on land and build­ing be transferred to Panchayati Raj Institutions;

(d) Open participation of political parties in Panchayati Raj affairs;

(e) The creation of certain monitoring forums to safeguard and promote the interests of vital social and economic groups in the villages;

(f) a regular social audit by a district level agency as well as by a committee of legislators to check whether funds earmarked for these social and economic groups are actually spent on them;

(g) The State legislators will have a committee on Panchayati Raj with adequate representation for scheduled castes and tribes to cater to their needs and mitigate grievances of the weaker sections;

(h) The State Government must not supersede the Panchayati Raj Institutions on partisan grounds. In case of an imperative supersession, election must take place within six months;

(i) Provision of urban amenities such as roads, portable water, medical care, employment and education in rural areas to neutralize pull for immigration to urban centres.

These recommendations were fairly laudable as they were designed to revitalize Panchayati Raj Institutions and accord them constitutional status but they were not without pitfalls firstly, Ashok Mehta committee conceived of Panchayati Raj in very narrow terms.

It reduced Panchayati Raj into mere administrative contrivance whose justification lies in terms of rural development. Panchayati Raj should have been considered a system of government enjoying a certain measure of autonomy in the matter of its functions and existing in its own right.’

Secondly, the commit­tee did not give proper recognition to the elective participative organism at the village level. Such a view makes the village too conspicuous by its absence.’ Thirdly, the present structure is not that inadequate as painted by it.

The proposed two-tier system and the exact location of two-tiers are structural manifestations of an overall sensitivity to technology and an under-reaction to democracy at the grass roots.

Fourthly, the Panchayati Raj institution lacks inherent power of taxation. The committee also failed to suggest a list of local taxes. Fifthly, the commit­tee did not suggest making
Panchayati Raj a part of the organic law of the land. A constitutional base if suggested could have imparted both a sanctity and stature to the grassroots democracy. Sixthly, election on party basis will pollute the rural atmosphere.

The villages will become hot­beds of intrigues and animosities. Comparing the Balwant Rai Mehta report with that of Ashok Mehta, an Indian social scientist remarks, “Both are easily the two landmarks in the history of local government in India though each has its distinctive conceptual framework of analysis and examination. In certain respects the second builds upon the first but in many others seeks a deliberate departure from his predecessor.”

With the fall of Janata Government, these recommendations of the committee remained in the tantalizing realm of unfulfilled aspirations. Hence the rural local bodies maintained status quo. Despite sincere attempts on the part of present state governments even now their financial resources remain meagre. Their supersessions have been too frequent. The State Governments have been too domineering.

Some of them have not shown sustained enthusiasm for Panchayati Raj at the higher levels as well. Thus, the formidable challenges to democracy necessitated a changed attitude to Panchayati Raj at higher levels as well. Democracy at higher levels is apt to have a weak base unless there is its habitual practice at the local level.

---

Essay # 4. Recent Attempts to Revitalize the System and Emergence of New Panchayat System:

In July-August 1989, the Congress (I) Government under Rajiv Gandhi introduced a 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill with a view to revitalize and rejuvenates the Panchayati Raj Insti­tutions. However, the Bill was defeated in the Rajya Sabha.

The 64th Amendment Bill had sought to strengthen centralization through holding Panchayti Raj Institutions’ elections under the supervision of Election Commission, appointment by the Centre of Finance Commission to regulate taxes and grants-in-aid and introduction of auditing of the Panchayati Raj Institutions’ accounts by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India who was to submit his report to the Governor.

Thus in all matters wings of the State Governments were clipped and the rule of the Centre was perpetuated. However, the Bill was vehemently opposed by the opposition and could not be passed.

In November 1989, the National Front Government soon after assuming power announced that it would grant powers to the rural democratic institutions to make them effective bodies. In two days conference of Chief Ministers held in June 1990, Panchayati Raj Institutions and urban local bodies were discussed.

The Government showed welcome promptness in proposing legis­lation to give constitutional status to Panchayti Raj Institutions, guaranteeing devolution of pow­ers for developmental decision making to villages.

Earlier on December 3, 1989, V.P. Singh in his first broadcast to the nation had declared that he would “bring forward legislation for genu­ine Panchayati Raj which will respect the imperatives of our federal structure”. The Chief Ministers’ conference decided that each state shall appoint its own Election Commission to supervise elections and have its own Finance Commission.

The government aimed at granting constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions, introducing reservation of seats for women and weaker sections and the provision of safeguards to make supersession of local bodies diffi­cult. The thrust of the reforms was to make Gram Sabha the base of rural set up. However, the fall of the government resulted in shelving the proposals of National Front Government.

In July 1992, MP Government dissolved Panchayati Raj Institution for no valid grounds. Evidently this was a misuse of discretionary powers. Hence a special act to check the high handedness of the State governments and safeguard the spirit of local autonomy and make grass root democracy flourish an Amendment Act was thought as the crying used of the hour.

This was undertaken by the congress government under Narsimha Rao when the 72^nd Amendment Act was introduced on Sept. 16, 1991. It proposed to add a new part for regular elections and adequate representation of the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

It provided for 1/3 reservation of seats for women and fixing tenures of the panchayats for 5 years. In the event of supersession of panchayats elections were to be held within six months.

The Bill was passed by the Parliament in Dec. 1992 and received the assent of the President on April 20, 1993. It was now known as Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992. All the states amended their Panchayati Raj Acts in accordance with the new constitu­tional provisions. Elections were held and the new system stood adopted.

The salient features of the Act were as follows:

(i) All the states would amend their Panchayati Raj Acts in accordance with new constitutional provision within the stipulated period i.e. April 23, 1994.

(ii) Establish­ment of Panchayats at the village, district and Intermediate level.

(iii) Panchayati Raj Institu­tions to function as institutions of self governance and to be endowed with powers and authority to formulate and implement schemes of economic development and social justice

(iv) Regular elections after every 5 years

(v) Direct elections of the village chairpersons and indirect elections of chairpersons at Block and District level

(vi) Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes/Sched­ule Tribes in proportion to their population,

(vii) Reservation of 1/3 seats for women

(viii) Similar reservation in respect of the office of chairperson,

(ix) Constitution of State Finance Commission every 5 years

(x) States empowered to provide reservation for Backward classes as well.

It was emphasized that the states will empower these panchayats adequately, give them adequate finances and bestow upon them proper autonomy in order to enable them to function efficiently and implement programmes of economic development and social justice.

---

Essay # 5. Significance of the 73rd Amendment Act:

The seventy third amendment act has its own significance. Local government has become the third tier of the Government of India. As regards its constitutional status, local government enjoys parity with the state government and the Central government. Of course, their jurisdiction vary and their powers enjoy significance according to their relative importance and sphere of control.

In any case, local government has been able to gain statutorily entity. The Local bodies may not have to face financial crunch any more. The Eleventh Finance Commission (EFC) sanctioned Rs. 1600 crores for the Panchyats.

The Twelfth Finance commission enhanced the sanctioned amount to Rs. 25000 crores for 2005-10 as grants-in-aid to argument the consolidated funds of the states to supplement the resources of both the Panchayats and the Municipalities.

Besides their own sources, were en-chanced by the Eleventh Finance Commission? It remarked “There is a need for a suitable tax that is buoyant and can be collected by local bodies.” So, financially they are going to be properly looked after. The old causes of Panchayats poor functioning are to vanish on account of the passage of 73rd amendment act. They should prove to be viable institutions of grass root democracy.

However, the Act has ignored the perpetual irritants between elected representatives and local level bureaucracy. The legislators will have to look into this problem which is one of the most potent causes of the malfunctioning of the Panchayats. It is also apprehended
that these institutions may dance to the tune of the rich in the villages.

However, the working of the Panchayati Raj institutions under the new dispensation has belied the hope that these institutions will act more effectively as instruments of rural development and social justice. The task of rural development involving projects concerning roads, drinking water supply, irrigation canals, agricultural extension, rural housing, etc. can only be undertaken in a top-down manner.

Historically speaking, the village has never had a cooperative system. The state has always had an authoritative relationship with the village and the modern Panchayati Raj continues to function on the basis of the same relationship despite structural changes. Besides lack of political will and also committed bureaucracy has impeded its vibrancy.

Some Observations:

It may seem ironical but it is a naked reality that after the passage of the 73rd amendment acted some political leaders representing all political hues tried to undermine the Act. The M.Ps and MLA demanded the local area development funds.

How illogical? Besides in the initial 25 years, to the non Congress ruled states viz West Bengal, Tripura and Kerala under the Marxist, Karnataka under the Janta Party, Orissa under Biju Patnaik, Andhra Pradesh under N.T. Rama Rao, added to the (otherwise decaying) glory of Panchayats.

The Congress led governments delayed panchayats election, Madhya Pradesh under Digvijay singh being an exception. In Bihar Nitish Kumar as C.M. gave 50 per cent reservation to the women in the Panchayats.

We high­light some of notable observations as under’:

1. The inception of a separate Ministry for the Panchayati Raj by the UPA Government is a laudable step. However, the critics committed to decentralization and grass-Toot democracy consider it a half hearted measure.

The new ministry should have been named as the Ministry of Local Government so as to bring urban and rural local bodies under one umbrella. Mathew is of the view that budget allocated to the Ministry was also meagre.

He went to the extent of saying that “panchayats as the implementing agencies are on paper only.” He opined the Na­tional Institute of Rural Development Hyderabad and the State Institutes for Rural Development the nodal institutions for training – have not been kept under the Panchayati Raj Ministry.

2. The successful working of the new Panchayati Raj also depends on prevalence of harmony of castes and prevention of clash of factional egos. Panchayats elections presented a dismal picture. Persons with criminal records have entered the panchayati Raj institutions.

The tales of misappro­priation of money extended for development purposes by the Sarpanchs also have been often repeated. The concern for the rural community has been mostly in jeopardy. Hence, a genuine era of rural development through self governance has yet to dawn.

3. Whatever the teething problems and existing weakness and constraints, the ministry has done exceptionally well. Our Panchayati Raj has been the envy of our neighborly countries Brazil, South Africa and some of Commonwealth countries. They seek inspiration for grass roots democracy from India. But Panchayats being the state subject, many state governments have the tendency to ride roughshod over the local bodies.

There is a dire necessity of New Deal as under:

(i) The New Deal should make Panchayats, institutions of local government as envisaged by the constitution.

(ii) It must ensure ways and means to make Panchayat’s the third tier of government in the country resulting in a good bye to the Collector Raj and ushering in era of District Governments.

(iii) It must ensure autonomy to implement the policies and programmes to eradicate poverty at the earliest but not later than 20 years.

“Let us hope the charter painstakingly prepared by the Panchayat members from all over the country will prove to be the threshold for the New Deal. Whether the Congress has the requisite political will to give a new deal to panchayats remains to be seen”.

Implementation of 73rd Amendment Act – Our Appraisal:

It is heartening to note that the 73rd Amendment Act 1992 ushers a new era in our Federal Polity and confers constitutional status on the Panchayati Raj institutions. After the passage of the Amendment Act almost all the states and UTs enacted laws to this effect. All the states have held Panchayat elections.

Approximately 234 676 Panchayat at village level 6097 panchayats at intermediate level and 537 Panchayats at the District level have been set up. These Panchayats are being controlled by 21.95 lakhs elected representatives of the Panchayats at all levels. Evidently this is the broadest representative base which exists in any democratic country of the world.

The objective of inception of a strong base of political empowerment of an ordinary ruralize has been attained. More than 21 lakh representatives stand elected, of these 40% are women, 16% Scheduled Castes and 11% Scheduled Tribes.

The spirit of Part IX of the constitution wanted these panchayats to function as units of rural self government. They were to be entrusted functional mandates and given certain degree of autonomy. However, the states were to decide the extent of powers to be transferred to the Panchayats.

Though formal transfer of functions has been done, yet the extent funds and the functionaries required for the performance of functions is as yet a far cry. Besides the central ministries earmarking substantial funds for the execution of centrally sponsored schemes ignore panchayats. Hence the states lose incentive for effecting desired devolution.

The Act has kept the role of political parties at local level vague. There is no indication for their participation in the local elections. Likewise, the act is silent over the relationship between Panchayati Raj institutions and load level bureaucracy. No coordination has been envis­aged between local bureaucracy and local elected representatives.

However, the Act has taken full care of frequent supersession and suspensions. The peri­odical elections within a scheduled time frame will enable the Panchayats to become viable institutions of grass root democracy Dr. B.L. Fadia has rightly opined “It is not enough to build up a case for revival of Panchayati Raj.

One must also talk about pre-requisites of the revival so that Panchayti Raj may not undergo another eclipse on the earlier pattern”.

---

Upload and Share Your Article:

Here is an essay on the ‘Study of Public Administration in India’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Study of Public Administration in India’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay # 1. Introduction to the Study of Public Administration:

In India, the study of public administration is still in its infancy. At the Higher Secondary or Intermediate level it does not form a part of curriculum. At the Degree level almost all Universities have started Elements of Public Administration as an elective subject.

At the post­graduate level, only a few Universities have provided for a course of Master’s degree in Public Administration. Certain Universities have provided for a Diploma course in Public Administra­tion.

Most Universities have provided for a Degree or Diploma course in a specialized branch of Public Administration. The Delhi School of Economics offers a course of Instruction in Business Administration. The Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics, Bombay, pro­vides for a Diploma Course in Public and Business Administration.

The Nagpur and Allahabad Universities offer a Diploma Course in Local Self-Government. Agra University’s Institute of Social Sciences, Patna University and Baroda University provide a degree course in Social and Labour Welfare Administration.

Gradually Public administration as a subject of study is gain­ing popularity. Most of the colleges have made provision for its study at under graduate level.

Essay # 2. Indian Institute of Public Administration:

The need of intensive study of the problems of administrative reforms was stressed both by the Gorwala Report of 1951 and the Appleby Report of 1953, As a result of these Reports, the Government of India established in March, 1954 the Indian Institute of Public Administration at New Delhi.

The Institute right from its inception had an ambitious plan to lay the foundation of administrative reform and at the same time to give Public Administration both a professional and practical basis. For this purpose, the Institute runs a School of Public Administration. The school provides education for Master’s Diploma in Public Administration.

The Institute guides and directs research programme in Pub­lic Administration. It also provides a variety of training courses for civil servants. The Institute has Regional and Local Branches at important places like Patna, Jaipur, Calcutta, Bombay, Chandigarh and Bangalore, which act as discussion forums.

The Institute also publishes a jour­nal entitled ‘Indian Journal of Public Administration’ which has been an informative and stimu­lating source of knowledge on Indian Administration.

Besides, Institutes of Public administra­tion have been set up at state level. HIPA (Haryana Institute of Public Administration) exists at Gurgaon. Likewise other states also are opting for such Institutes. A senior civil service officer is put as in-charge of such an Institution. From time to time training courses of state level officers are held here.

Besides, in service Training Courses, wherever necessitated are imparted here. Discussions on state Legislation pertaining to the public welfare are also arranged. Recently in HIPA at Gurgaon college Principals were invited for a week or so to discuss “Right to Information’ and exhorted to enlighten their teachers, office and students about its practical utility.

Essay # 3. Management Studies and Training in India:

The need for studies and training in Busi­ness and Industrial Management has since been realized in the country. In 1957 the Govern­ment of India established in Hyderabad an Administrative Staff College.

The object of the college is to cultivate administrative skills and talents in the trainees drawn both from the government and the industry. The training is given mostly through syndicates and seminars.

A National Management Organization was set up in 1957 and since then, regional management bodies are being organized in different parts of the country. The Union Ministry of Scientific Research and Technical Education later to set up seven regional centres to meet the needs of the business and industrial organizations of this vast country.

The All-India Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management in Calcutta and the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, cater to the needs of Eastern Region; the Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute in Bombay and the Department of Business Administration of the Bombay University serve the needs of the Western Region; the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and the Department of Business Administration, Madras University cater to the needs of the Southern Region; and the Indian Institute of Engineering, Delhi, and the Delhi School of Economics look after the Northern Region.

There are two All-India Institutes of Business Management—one at Ahmedabad and another at Calcutta—to impart higher education and research in business administration.

The National Productivity Council set up as early as 1953 also organizes temporary training centres for foremanship and business executive from time to time at different places. To improve the quality of education and training in these Institutes an All-India Conference of Training Managers and coordinators was convened in 1970.

The Conference succeeded in constituting an Indian Society for Training and Development with branches in all the industrial cities, e.g., Calcutta, Delhi, Bombay and Madras.

It is hoped that the various institutes set up in the country will succeed in meeting the needs of the business and industrial organizations for training personnel in the diversified field of Management by holding in service and past entry training courses from time to time.

Essay # 4. National Academy of Administration:

It was set up at Missouri in 1959. The Academy imparts instruction in administration to the new entrants in the Indian Administrative and Cen­tral Services. It also provides refresher and orientation courses for the officers in service.

The Academy has greatly contributed to the study of Public Administration. It has developed its own teaching materials. It has produced a high class literature on Indian Administration.

Corresponding to the National Academy of Administration there are civil service training institutes in Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.

Besides, there are Central Secretariat Training School, National Institute of Health Administration and Education, National Institute of Mass Communication, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, Training Institute for Revenue Service, all located in Delhi; I.A.A.S. Staff College at Shimla; Railway Staff College at Baroda; Income Tax Service Training School at Nagpur; National Police Academy at Abu.

All these institutions have not only provided train­ing to new entrants in different services but also contributed greatly towards the development and systematization of the subject-matter of Public Administration. Administrative Staff College at Hyderabad imparts training to personnel drawn from industry, commerce and government.

Upload and Share Your Article:

In this essay we will discuss about the directive principles of state policy according to Indian constitution.

Essay # 1. Introduction to Directive Principles of State Policy:

Directive principles are the prominent and unique characteristic of Indian constitution influenced by the Irish Constitution of 1937; the Constitutional fathers of the Indian Constitution incorporated these Principles from Articles 36-51 in Chapter IV of the Constitution. These Principles are like the instrument of instructions or directions to the future legislature and executives to show in what manner they are to exercise their powers.

According to Dr. A.C. Kapoor, “These Directive Principles are intended to lie down in general terms the objects which the framers of the Constitution desired that the Government of the Centre and the States should pursue in guiding the destiny of the nation. They are in the nature of affirmative instructions to government to direct their activities to do certain things and thereby promote the realisation of the high ideals set forth in the Preamble of the Constitution.”

The inclusion of these principles was described by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as a ‘Novel feature’ of the Indian Constitution. The objective of these principles is to establish a social and economic democracy in India. People cannot use their political rights properly if they are confronted with economic problems. Political democracy without social and economic democracy cannot be successful. The Directive Principles are complimentary to the Fundamental Rights.

According to Prof. J.C. Johri, “While Part III of Fundamental Rights lays down the Foundations of political democracy in the country. Part IV contains a set of positive directions spelling out the charter of social and economic democracy.”

According to Dr. K.C. Markandan, “If the chapter of Fundamental Rights is essential for the democratic state of written constitution, the chapter of Directive Principles of State Policy is essential for the welfare state of written constitution.” According to B.K. Gokhale, “In brief they aim at the establishment of a welfare state in which justice, liberty and equality shall prevail and people are happy and prosperous.”

Directive Principles place an ideal for the country’s administration and expectations for the people that State in India stands to establish social and economic democracy. These principles are not justiciable. Article 37 of the Indian Constitution states that “The provisions contained in this Part shall not be enforceable by any Court but the principles therein laid down are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the state to apply these principles in the making of laws.”

The objective of the Directive Principles of State Policy is to establish a new social order in which there will be social, economic and political justice. Article 38 of Part IV declares, “The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which justice social, economic and political shall inform all the institutions of national life.”

Essay # 2. Nature of Directive Principles:

The characteristics of the directive principles are as under:

1. Scope of the Directive Principles is Wide:

The Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution deal with every aspect of the national life like the social, economic, political and administrative. They also deal with international place and unity. Thus, their scope is quite vast.

2. Directive Principles are Non-Justiciable:

Article 37 of Indian Constitution makes it quite clear that the courts of the country cannot order their implementation. Thus the responsibility of their implementation lies on the shoulders of the state and not to the courts because Article 37 also mentions that it is the sacred duty of the state to implement the directive principles.

3. Fundamental in the Governance of the Country:

Article 37 of the Indian Constitution states that though the Directive Principles are not justiciable but they form the basic foundation of the State Policy. It also mentions that these Principles should always be kept in view while the laws are to be enacted and administration is to be run.

4. Not Bound with any Particular Ideology:

The Directive Principles of State Policy are an ideology in themselves and they are not found with particular ideology. Their implementation can be sought by any ideology. The constitutional fathers adopted the course of Democratic socialism in order to implement these Directive Principles.

5. Guiding Principles in Law Making:

It is the sacred duty of the members of Indian parliament, State Legislative Assemblies, City Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats and other political wings of State Policy to keep these Directive Principles in view. They should try to implement these principles while making laws. The name Directive Principles is very significant. It implies that they are the directions for the formulation of State Policy.

6. Inclusion of Article 31 (c) has Increased the Importance of Directive Principles:

The 25th constitutional Amendment was passed in 1971. According to this amendment the Directive Principles of State Policy included in article 39 (b) and 39 (c) have been given precedence over the Fundamental Rights included in article 14, 19 and 31 of the Indian Constitution. This has greatly increased the importance of the Director Principles of the State Policy.

Essay # 3. Classification of Directive Principles of State Policy:

The Directive Principles of State Policy from Articles 36 to 51 in Chapter IV have not been properly classified. There are many elements in these Directive Principles. Some are economic and some relate to justice and education. Some are related to agriculture and animal husbandry and some to scheduled tribes and weaker sections of the society.

Keeping in view the nature and objective of directive principles, they may be divided into the following categories:

1. Socialist Principles.

2. Liberal Principles

3. Gandhian Principles

4. General and International Principles.

1. Socialist Principles:

This category includes those Principles which aim at the establishment of a welfare socialist state of India. It was through the 42nd Amendment that the word ‘Socialism’ has been added to the Preamble of the Constitution.

Some of the following Directive Principles fulfill this objective of the Constitution:

I. According to Article 38 of the Indian Constitution the State shall try to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order characterised by justice—social, economic and political.

II. Art 38 (2) which has been interested into the Indian Constitution by the 44th Constitutional Amendment provides that the State will strive for minimising the inequalities present in the income of the people, their social status, privileges and opportunities but would also try to minimise the inequalities present in the various fields of national life of the people living in different parts of the country and belonging to different professions.

III. According to Article 39 (a) the State will try to formulate its policy in such manner that all citizens, men as well as women, would get adequate means for earning their livelihood.

IV. According to articles 39 (b), the State shall direct its policy towards securing the ownership and control of the material resources of the community
in such a manner as to ensure public welfare.

V. According to Article 39 (c) the economy of the State will be administered in such a manner that wealth may not get concentrated in a few hands and the means of production may not be used against the public interest. According to Article 39 (d) arrangements will be made to ensure equal pay for equal work both for men and women.

VI. According to Article 39 (d) arrangements will be made to ensure equal pay for equal work both for men and women.

VII. According to Article 39 (e) the health of the workers, laborers, men, women and children will not be permitted to be adversely affected. Beside this, it will also be ensured that the citizens compelled by their economic needs, do not undertake such works which may not be in accordance with their age or capacity.

VIII. According to Article 39 (f) which has been inserted by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, the State will formulate and execute its policies in such a manner that the children will get opportunities and facilities in a healthy, free and respectable environment. It will end the exploitation of the children and the youth and will ensure them protection against moral and material degeneration.

IX. According to Article 39 A which has been added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, the State will act in such manner as to ensure legal provisions which will help in getting justice on the basis of equal opportunities. This State will also make arrangements for the availability of free legal assistance to the economically backward people. This will ensure that a person may not be deprived of getting justice because of his economic or other inabilities.

X. According to Article 41 of Indian Constitution, the State will, working within the limits of its economic viability and progress, provide to the citizens the right to work, the right to education and general assistance in the event of unemployment, old age, disease and other disabilities.

XI. According to Article 42 of the Indian Constitution, the state will make provisions for the creation of appropriate and human conditions for work. It will also ensure assistance to pregnant women.

XII. According to Article 48 of the Indian Constitution, the state will ensure adequate wages, good life and rest to the laborers. The State will also endeavor to make available to the laborers various socio-economic facilities.

XIII. According to Articles 43A, which has been added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, the State will endeavor, either by appropriate legislation or by certain other methods that the workers and laborers participate in the management of business connected with industries or other institutions.

2. Liberal Principles:

The aim of these principles is to establish a liberal socio-political system in India and to make the state an instrument of socio-economic welfare.

The following directive principles can be included in this category:

I. According to Article 44, the State shall endeavor to secure for the citizens to Uniform Civil Code throughout the territory of India.

II. According to Article 45, the State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years, free and compulsory education for all children below the age of 14 years.

III. According to Article 47, the State shall endeavor to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health.

IV. According to Article 50, the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the State.

3. Gandhian Principles:

Those directive principles which have been included in the Indian Constitution under the influence of Gandhism are known as Gandhian Principles.

The following directive principles are covered in this category:

I. According to Article 40 of the Indian Constitution, the State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and will provide them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.

II. According to Article 43 of the Indian Constitution, the State shall endeavor to promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas.

III. According to Article 46 of the Indian Constitution, the State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of society and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and their forms of exploitation.

IV. According to Article 47 of the Indian Constitution, the State shall endeavor to bring about the prohibition of consumption, except for medical purposes, of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health.

V. According to Article 48 of the Indian Constitution, the State shall endeavor to prohibit slaughter of cows, calves, and other milch cattle.

4. General and International Principles:

Those principles which do not belong to any ideology and are of generic nature and also deal with the formulation of foreign policy of India and its role as member of the international community come under this category.

These principles are as under:

I. According to Article 48 of the Indian Constitution, the state shall endeavor to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines take steps for preserving and improving their breeds.

II. According to Article 48A which has been added by the 42nd Amendment, the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wild life of the country.

III. According to Article 49 of the Indian Constitution, it shall be the obligation of the state to protect every monument or place or artistic or historic interest from spoliation, disfigurement and destruction.

IV. According to Article 51 (a) of the Indian Constitution, the State shall endeavor to promote international peace and security.

V. According to Article 51 (b) of the Indian Constitution, the State shall maintain just and honorable relations among various states in the world.

VI. According to Article 51 (c) of the Indian Constitution, the state shall promote respect for international law and treaty obligations.

VII. According to Article 51 (d) of the Indian Constitution, the state shall encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

Part IV of the Indian Constitution enumerates the Directive Principle which the State is expected to realise through legislation. Directive Principles of State Policy are not enforceable yet these are to be regarded as fundamental principles in the governance of the State. Dr. K. C. Markandan holds that “If a chapter on fundamental rights is an essential part of a modern democratic state with a written constitution, a chapter on Directive principles is a necessary for a welfare state with a written constitution.”

The constitution while stating that these are not enforceable declares that these are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country. The directive principles specify the aim and objectives of the Indian Constitution which are to be secured by the state through future policy-making and legislation.

The directive principles are not holy declarations and mere ornaments rather they constitute the sacred constitutional direction to the state to work for promoting the socio-economic culture welfare of the people by implementing these principles through legislation. The term ‘State’ means the Government and parliament of India and the government and legislature of each state and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India (Art 36).

Thus it is the constitutional duty, though non- enforceable, of all the legislatures and executives working in the state of the Union and at the Union level to work for implementation of the directives containe
d in part IV of the constitution. Some of the directives have been adopted by the state for implementation through various laws and policies.

Accepting Directive Principles of State Policy as guidelines, the State Governments have passed many laws to abolish Zamindari System. When in the Supreme Court and the High Courts these laws were held ultra vires to the fundamental right to property given in the Constitution, the government amended the Constitution to provide constitutional, protection to these laws. Till now about 224 land reform laws have been provided protection under Article 31B of the constitution. The land acquired from the Zamindars has been fairly distributed among farmers.

In accordance with the directive to organise panchayats and other local government institutions, the state has organised a three tier Panchyati Raj system in the rural areas. The Panchayati Raj institutions have been given adequate powers and authority. In urban areas, the institutions like municipal councils, improvement trusts, town planners, cantonment boards etc. have been established by 73rd amendment Act, the Panchayati Raj institutions have been revamped. These institutions have been given fixed tenures, assured elections and more financial and non-financial powers.

Acting under the directive to protect the interests of the weaker sections of society, the state has taken steps to provide educational and health facilities to the persons belonging to weaker sections of society especially the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, for the development of their economic interests and for their protection from social injustice and exploitation.

The children of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes are given special facilities in schools and colleges. Fees are not charged from them and they are given grants in aid for studies. Seats for admission in medical and technical colleges are kept reserved for them. In government services also seats are reserved for them in proportion to their number. In legislative assemblies seats are reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes’ since 2000 B. C.

The State has enacted several laws for protecting the rights and interests of women and for protecting them from exploitation. The Dowry Prohibition Act was passed in 1961. In 1956, the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act (SITA) was passed. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1983 provided for punishment of rape with a minimum of seven’ years’ imprisonment. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986 has prohibited the denigration of women in photography, advertisement and films. In 1987, Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act was passed by the Parliament after the Deorala incident in Rajasthan.

The provision for equal wages for equal work for both men and women has been given a legal shape. The State has made the employment of child labour a crime under the industrial act. According to Hindu Marriage Act 1956, Hindu Succession Act 1956 and other laws, women have the right to marry according to their own choice, divorce and become equal partner in the property of their parents. Prostitution has been declared unlawful by law. Provision for ‘Protection Homes’ has been made to rehabilitate those who run brothel houses.

Keeping in view the Directive Principles, the government has passed many laws like the Factories Act 1948, Mines Act 1952, Plantation Act 1951, Maternity Benefit Act 1961 etc. for protecting the interest of workers. Minimum wages have been fixed. Health and accident benefits have been granted to the workers. The working hours, compensation rates, provident fund and gratuity benefits, health insurance etc. have been introduced.

Provisions have been made for equal pay for equal work for both men and women. The practice of bonded labour has been abolished. The pregnant women are given maternity relief. There is also provision for the workers for holiday at week end, rest during work and annual holidays. Workers participation in management of industries has been secured. Even after introducing liberalisation, the State continues to protect the labour. Labour welfare legislation occupies a key place on government priority list.

The State extends help and encouragement to small scale and cottage industries. For the promotion of cottage industries several boards have been established like All India Khadi and Village Industries Board. Small Scale Industries Board, Silk Board, All India Handicraft Board, All India Handloom Board, the Coir Board etc. supply economic and technical help to cottage industries.

The State has taken several steps to develop agriculture and animal husbandry. Establishment of agricultural universities, dairy research centres, co-operative milk plants, agro-industries, fertiliser plants etc. have been undertaken. The State has been trying to make agriculture a profitable enterprise for the farmers. New kinds of seeds, manures and agricultural equipment have been invented which have helped to increase agricultural production multifold.

New schemes of irrigation have been put into practice. The farmers are encouraged to increase their production and are given subsidies for this purpose. To improve animal husbandry and to protect milch cattle, new methods are being implemented. The coming of Green Revolution resulting into the creation of buffer stocks of food-grains has been a very encouraging development.

According to the Article 45 of the Constitution, State has been directed to arrange for free and compulsory education for the children upto the age of 14 years within 10 years after the enforcement of the Constitution. Many states have passed necessary laws in order to give practical shape to this direction. In almost all the states there is free and compulsory primary education. In Punjab, education upto 8th class is free and compulsory. In Jammu and Kashmir, education upto M. A. class is free. Steps have been taken for spreading adult education and women education. The State of Kerala has achieved cent percent literacy. However, other States are still lagging behind.

For the raising of the living standards of the rural people the State has been implementing various programmes and projects. Within the broad frame-work of Community Development Programme several projects have been undertaken to develop rural industries, handicrafts and cottage industries. Integrated Rural Development, National Rural Employment Programme, Self-employment Programmes etc. have been operationalised. Attempts have been made to secure better housing, better sanitation, better civil facilities, improved education and better communications in urban as well as rural areas.

The State has taken steps for introducing prohibition. However, the problems involved in securing total prohibition have forced the State to encourage prohibition through proper education, publicity and mass media. Every attempt is being made to check the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs. Stringent laws have been made to prevent the smuggling of narcotics into India. There is total prohibition in State like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Haryana. In some States prohibition is partial. The Central Government has announced a national policy about prohibition. Under this policy, the Central government is ready to bear 50% loss of revenue of state governments.

In order to give practical shape to the Directive Principles of State Policy, the government started a series of Five Year Plans. With this end in view a planning commission was set up in 1950. Through Five Year plans, the State has been trying to realise the objectives of rapid industrialisation, technological advancement and economic development, use natural resources of the country for public welfare, to distribute fairly the wealth of the country and to raise the people’s standard of living.

Seven Five Year Plans have been implemented and the 8th Five Year Plan is currently being formulated for implementation. Several multipurpose projects like Bhakhra-Nangal Project, Hira
kund project. Damodar Valley Project, Chambal River Project etc. have been completed and these have given vital strength to the process of socio­economic development.

Acting under the directives given by Article 51, the government has adopted Panchsheel and non-alignment as his fundamental feature of Indian foreign policy. India has always adhered to the principles of peace through peaceful means, development of friendship and co-operation with all the states, promotion of world peace, peaceful solution of conflicts and aloofness from cold war, alliance politics and unhealthy power politics. The Indian foreign policy enshrines the directives contained in all sections of Article 51 of the Constitution.

The State has enacted laws for protecting historical monuments and other objects of historical and artistic significance. A number of memorials and places have been declared of national importance and the responsibility of their preservation and protection rests with the government. Laws have been enacted for pollution control and protection of environment.

Despite all the efforts, the State has not been successful in realising fully the aims and objectives set forth in Part IV. The widespread poverty—between 30 to 40% of Indians are still living below the poverty line— the low level of literacy, inadequate success in the family welfare programme and the objective or providing free and compulsory education to all children is still a distant dream. In May 1995, Supreme Court of India called upon the government to attempt to formulate a uniform civil code for ail Indians as stipulated under Article 44 of the Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution. But as yet even no law has been made to codify Muslim Personal Law.

Steps to provide social security to the needy have been inadequate. Plan targets have never been realised. Even the modes needs of the common man are not adequately met, the gap between the rich and the poor is widening and the concentration wealth and economic power into fewer hands has been increasing. The failures of laws against dowry, untouchability, crimes against women, immoral traffic in women and girls and other social evils are well known facts.

The objective of securing justice—social, economic and political for all is still an unrealised objective. Progress in this regard has been inadequate and slow. Poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, under development, industrial and technological gaps, lack of health care facilities for the poor, costly justice, increasing urban- rural gap and regional imbalances continue to characterise Indian society.

Resource constraints are seriously and adversely affecting the obtainment of objectives as stated in the Preamble and as specified in Part IV of the Constitution. The task of securing the directives in practice is indeed a gigantic one. It is not easy for a developing country like India to grant right to work to all. It is again very difficult for the country, with wide-spread socio-economic-religious and cultural diversities, to formulate and operationalise a uniform civil code for all. Population explosion has been negativating the efforts towards the securing of socio-economic development.

The objective of securing justice—social, economic and political is a laudable ideal but its attainment is found to be and has been problematic. The state has initiated several meaningful steps towards the securing of social justice, legal reforms, and administrative reforms, economic and industrial reforms through appropriate legislation. But the success has been inadequate due to lack of efforts towards the implementation of such laws as well as due to lack of social consciousness and efforts towards the integration of these measures in the social fabric. Although a number of measures have been adopted in order to implement the various Directive Principles of State Policy but still much needs to be done.

Upload and Share Your Article: