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[PDF] Essay on the Constitution: Top 6 Essays | Government | Law

Here is a compilation of essays on the ‘Constitution’ for class 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Constitution’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Constitution

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Definition of Constitution
Essay on the Utility of the Study of the Constitution
Essay on the Aristotle Classification of the Constitutions
Essay on the Modern View of the Classification of Constitutions
Essay on the Written and Unwritten Constitution
Essay on the Methods of Amending the Constitutions in Different Countries

Essay # 1. Definition of Constitution:

Every state has a constitution of its own, like every game having some rules of its own. Football has one set of rules and the cricket has a different set of rules. These rules for the state are called the constitutions. These rules are there to fix the structure of the supreme government. Every state must have a constitution, since every state functions on the basis of certain rules and principles.

In the broadest sense, a constitution is the fundamental body of rules governing the affairs of an organised group. Thus a parliament, a church, a social club or a trade union may operate under the terms of a formal written document called the constitution.

The provisions made in the constitution are considered to be basic. So the presiding officer of a club must hold that a proposal is out of order if it runs contrary to the provisions of its constitution.

Every national state has a constitution for the purpose of operating its important institutions according to some fundamental body of rules. In that sense, the only alternative to a constitution is a jungle life or a condition of anarchy.

The constitution is the fundamental law that not only determines the powers and responsibilities of the state but reflects the will of the people also. For R. M. MacIver, constitution is “that law which governs the state and which represents the will beyond that of the state.”

To Theodore Dwight Woolsey, it is a “Collection of principles according to which the powers of the government and the rights of the governed are determined and the relation between the two adjusted”.

Albert Venn Dicey’s definition of the constitution is “All rules which directly or indirectly affect the distribution or the exercise of sovereign power in the state”. Herman Finer’s concept of the constitution is precise – “A system of fundamental political institution”.

The accumulated material and the spiritual circumstances of the time are mirrored through the constitution. The political philosophy of the people and their time are reflected through the constitution. With the change in the philosophy of the people the constitution also changes. The constitution is the key to the forms of the government.

As R. G. Gettel rightly observes:

“The fundamental principles that determine the form of a state are called its constitution”.

According to Herman Finer:

“Constitutions are codes of rules which aspire to regulate the allocation of functions, powers and duties among the various agencies and offices of the government and define the relationships between these and the public”. The constitution may be a single document and it may be also some rules, maxims and conventions. So every constitution contains some written provisions and also some unwritten conventions.

The above account tells us that a constitution should possess the following attributes:

(i) It should lay down the powers of the government and the different organs of the government like the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.

(ii) In a federation the constitution distributes the powers between the federal authority and the units.

(iii) The constitution also deals with the rights and duties of the citizens.

Essay # 2. Utility of the Study of the Constitution:

First, a study of the constitution tells us the important things about the quality and temper of political behaviour in the country and at the same time points out the active sources of political powers.

Secondly, it gives us insight into the essential core of the government of that country and the basic structure behind the constitution statute.

Thirdly, without a knowledge of the constitution statute we cannot know whether there has been any breach of any provision of the constitution. From this we may further go to know: who has broken the rule? Why has the rule been broken? What are the effects of such breach of rules?

Lastly, from a study of the constitution we have an exact knowledge of what happens or who does what, where and when a highly important affair occasions. Thus from a study of the constitution of the USA we know that every fourth year the electors will vote for a President and the Vice-President.

Suppose the President of the French Republic is incapacitated or declared insane or resigns, who will take over from the President for the time being? What will happen after that? Or, suppose the President has dissolved the National Assembly and dislikes the result of the subsequent election, can he dissolve the assembly again and order for a new election? The answer is that he cannot until one year elapses.

Essay # 3. Aristotle Classification of the Constitutions:

It was the Greek philosopher Aristotle who was the first to classify the constitutions. He had two criteria in classifying the constitutions. The first criterion was quality of the constitution. So on this basis Aristotle had two kinds of constitutions, namely good or pure and bad or perverted constitutions, depending on the ability of a particular system to achieve justice.

He defined monarchy as a rule by a virtuous man and considered it as the best form of constitution. According to him, tyranny was the rule by a selfish man which was the worst form of the perverted system. His second best constitution was aristocracy which was a rule by a virtuous few. The third best was polity or moderate democracy.

The extreme democracy which is a rule by the mob was considered the best of the perverted form of government. According to Aristotle, oligarchy, which was a rule by a selfish minority, was the perverted form of aristocracy.

Thus applying his second criterion of quantity he lists his constitution as monarchy (or tyranny), aristocracy (or oligarchy) and polity (or democracy). In a monarchy or tyranny the supreme power is vested in a single man. In an aristocracy or oligarchy the rulers are a few people. In a polity or democracy the supremacy lies with the whole body of the citizens.

Criticism of Aristotle’s Classification of the Constitutions:

Aristotle’s classification is not of the constitutions but one of the forms of government Modern constitutions is classified into written and unwritten, rigid and flexible and enacted and evolves constitutions. Aristotle’s difference between aristocracy and oligarchy is misleading.

His difference between good and bad is something of interpretation and so this classification is unscientific. Again, Aristotle’s concept of democracy is just the opposite to what we mean by democracy. So Aristotle’s classification is to be described as old, unscientific, misleading and incorrect.

Essay # 4. Modern View of the Classification of Constitutions:

1. Written Constitution:

A written constitution is a written piece of document enacted in the manner of laws.

The conscious and deliberate wishes of the people are reduced into writing after thorough consideration of all aspects of the matter.

It is drawn up by the representatives of the people. The constitution of the USA was the first written constitution to be drafted by a Constituent Assembly.

The constitution of India was enacted by the Constituent Assembly duly elected by the people for the purpose of making the constitution. The written constitution has a date of its commencement. The constitution of India commence on 26 January 1950. A written constitution is precise, definite and systematic.

Merits of Written Constitution:

In the first place, the written constitution is definite and precise. Since all the powers and functions of the different organs of the government are written down there is no scope of one travelling into the territory of other. A single document constitution has such advantages as greater precision, simplicity and consistency.

In the second place, the written constitution guarantees the fundamental rights. In a written constitution there is not only clear power of the various authorities but the basic rights of the people also. The result is that the government cannot behave arbitrarily and cannot take away the fundamental rights of the people.

There is no better way of having it than getting all such powers written down in the body of the constitution. So a federation will be unworkable without a written constitution.

Demerits of Written Constitution:

The rigidity hampers growth and adjustment to the changing social and economic conditions. And so there is the inherent danger of a revolution or political upheaval under a written constitution.

In other words, they inject too much rigidity in cases where flexibility is preferable. Again, since a very long constitution says too many things on too many subjects, it must be amended time and again. This will make the constitution still longer.

In the third place, the procedure in a written constitution is difficult and time-consuming. Written constitutions are not only likely to give rise to greater problems of interpretations than un-written ones. They are also harder to change. The corresponding merits of unwritten constitutions are that they tend to change gradually, continually and often imperceptibly in response to the changing needs.

But when a constitution lays down the exact procedures for the election of the President, for relation between the executive and legislative branches, or for defining whether a particular governmental function is to be performed by the federal government or a member province, then the only constitutional way to change these procedures is by means of the procedure provided by the constitution itself or by its own amendment. This is not only difficult but time-consuming too.

2. Unwritten Constitution:

In an unwritten constitution there is nothing like an enactment of laws by a Constituent Assembly composed of the representatives of the people. It is mainly a collection of customs, conventions, traditions and some written laws drawn unsystematically at different points of time. It is a growth of historical accidents and chances. It has no date of commencement.

The classic example of the unwritten constitution is the constitution of England. New Zealand and Israel are the other two countries with unwritten constitutions. As to the English constitutions written parts are chiefly the Magna Carta granted by King John in the thirteenth century.

The second written installment of the constitution of England was the Bill of Rights of 1689 granted by King William III after the Glorious Revolution. The Act of Settlement of 1701 and the three Reforms Bills are the other written parts of the British constitution. The gaps are to be filled up by the customs, traditions and national spirit of the people of England.

Merits of Unwritten Constitution:

In the first place, an unwritten constitution has the advantage of adjustability and adaptability. It can change like a branch of tree is pulled out to allow a motor vehicle to pass the tree, a written constitution enables the government to meet any political storm by dint of its flexibility.

So a government under an unwritten constitution is more durable than that under a written one. For example, there have been rare occasions for England to face any serious political upheaval.

In the third place, an unwritten constitution is of special advantage for a developing country. In a newly developing state such as Israel, the balance of advantage has been found in an un-written or un codified constitution evolving through the growth of customs and modicum of statutes.

Demerits of Unwritten Constitution:

In the first place, an un-written constitution is indefinite, vague and un-precise. Since nothing is put into writing, there is every likelihood of abuse of powers by the authorities. There is also the danger of conflicts about the power and jurisdiction of various organs of government.

In the second place, there is no guarantee of fundamental rights in an unwritten constitution. In the absence of clear mentions of the fundamental rights the individual liberties are at stake under an unwritten constitution.

In the third place, a federal government cannot function under an unwritten constitution. This is so because in a federation there must be a clear demarcating line with regard to the powers and functions of the federal government and the units, both of which must derive their power from the constitution. Thus flexible constitution may be a plaything in the hands of an irresponsible parliament.

Lastly, it makes the legislature all-powerful, which may introduce drastic changes in the constitution detrimental to the interest of the nation.

Many juristic writers, notably Lord James Bryce, have classified constitutions as being either rigid or flexible depending upon the methods by which they are changed. The constitution of England was described as flexible because it can be amended by the parliament in the ordinary legislative way.

Since the constitution of the USA can be amended only by an extraordinary method, namely by two-thirds majority of both the houses of parliament plus ratification by three-fourths of the states, it is called a rigid constitution.

A flexible constitution can be amended as an ordinary law in the ordinary way. So under a flexible constitution there is no difference between an ordinary law and
constitutional law with regard to the procedure of alternations.

3. Rigid Constitution:

A rigid constitution is one which cannot be amended in the same way as an ordinary law is made or changed. When a special procedure is called upon to amend the constitution the constitution, is called rigid. According to R. G. Gettell – “Its laws are thus fixed and emanate from a source different from that of ordinary laws, which must keep within the bounds fixed by the constitution”.

Thus neither the ordinary legislature nor the ordinary procedure is competent to amend the rigid constitution. Under a rigid constitution a difference is made between a constitutional law and an ordinary law.

Their constitutional law stands on a superior footing than an ordinary law. Under a rigid constitution the constitutional law being supreme, any law that runs contrary to the constitutional provisions is null and void. Not only that. Under a rigid constitution the legislature is not supreme or sovereign authority. Sovereignty lies with the constitution.

The typical example of the rigid constitution is the constitution of the USA. There a distinction is made between the constitutional law and the ordinary law. The USA constitution cannot be amended like an ordinary law of USA.

While an ordinary law can be made or changed by a simple majority in the legislature this is not the case with regard to the amendment of constitution, which needs agreement of two-thirds majority of the legislature and ratification by three-fourths of the states.

Merits of Rigid Constitution:

First, a rigid constitution is more stable than a flexible one. It being solid like a rock it cannot be swayed by the temporary emotion or commotion of the people.

Secondly, the rigid constitution is clear and definite. The provisions of the constitution have been carefully worded by the makers of the constitution and so there is no confusion or ambiguity about the provisions of the constitution.

Thirdly, a rigid constitution provides for the fundamental rights and thereby ensures individual liberty. This is of paramount benefit for the minorities.

Fourthly, a rigid constitution is indispensable for a federation. There must be some rigidity with regard to the powers of the federal authority vis-a-vis that of the units to avoid misgivings and to remove doubts.

Lastly, rigidity of the constitution is the symbol of its sovereignty. The people respect a constitution which stands for supremacy. Thus the people take pledge in the name of the constitution as if somebody is taking oath by putting his hand on the Gita or the Bible or the Koran.

Demerits of Rigid Constitution:

The most serious flaw of a rigid constitution is that it cannot swiftly bend to meet some exigency. A time may come when the people cannot wait for amending the constitution in a time-consuming procedure. In the absence of such adaptability there may break out violence and revolution.

It is said that the French Revolution of 1789 broke out because the evils in the constitution of France could not be cured quickly and the people demanding for sweeping changes could not wait for a long and indefinite period of expectancy.

So T. B. Macaulay rightly condemned the rigid constitution in the words- “One important cause of the revolution is that while nations move onward the constitutions stand.”

The second disadvantage of a rigid constitution is that a country cannot progress along the new socio-economic lines under a rigid constitution.

Can a person continue to wear the same garment during the childhood, youth and old age? But under a rigid constitution he cannot outgrow his childhood.

This is best asserted by Jawaharlal Nehru – “While we want this constitution to be as solid and permanent as we can make it, there is no permanence in the constitutions. There should be a certain flexibility. If you make anything rigid and permanent, you stop the nation’s growth, the growth of a living, vital, organic people. In any event, we could not make this constitution so rigid that it cannot be adapted to changing conditions.”

4. Flexible Constitution:

A constitution is said to be flexible when the procedure for its amendment is like that of an-ordinary law. So there is no distinction made between the constitutional law and ordinary law with regard to the procedure of amendment of the same. From this it follows that under a flexible constitution there is no difference between the constitutional law and ordinary law at all.

Under a flexible constitution the legislature is the sovereign and there is nobody to question the unconstitutionality or illegality of any law made by the legislature. The classic example of flexible constitution is that of England. The parliament of England can do anything and everything, except making a man into woman.

Merits of Flexible Constitution:

The major merit of a flexible constitution is that it can easily adapt itself to the new conditions or to meet any eventuality. Since it is flexible, it can bend without breaking. It is very useful for every new and developing country.

Secondly, a flexible constitution can avoid a political crisis like a revolt or revolution. Since the passions of the people can be met by bending the constitutional framework, it can easily avert a serious political crisis. That is why there has been no serious political chaos in England.

Demerits of Flexible Constitution:

The major defect of a flexible constitution is its instability and lack or permanence. It is a dangerous suggestion that the structure of the constitution can be drastically changed by the wave of popular passion. If it so happens it is bound to harm the nation.

Secondly, a flexible constitution does not suit a federation because the division of power and respective jurisdiction between the federal authority and the federating provinces must rest on some permanent and durable foundation. If a power given to a province is taken away in the manner of amending an ordinary law, where will be the guarantee of the federation?

Essay # 5. Written and Unwritten Constitution:

A constitution may be either written or unwritten. The USA has a written constitution, but the constitution of England is unwritten. The USA has a formal single document called the constitution, whereas there is no such document in England.

The written aspect of the British constitution includes the Bill of rights (1689), the Act of Settlement (1701), the Parliament Act of 1911, and the Representation of the People Act which extended the suffrage. These were never codified within the structure of a single orderly document. So we find that the constitution of England is not wholly unwritten.

We have also noticed that some written ness is there in the constitution of England. It is at the same time to be admitted that the USA constitution is not wholly a written document. The American people follow some conventions and traditions which are as good as the written words of the constitution. So we find that the USA constitution provides for an indirect election of the President but the convention has made the election rather direct.

Again, although the constitution of the USA provides for separation of powers, the President of the USA, in effect, is not only the chief executive but the chief legislator also. If it is so, where is the demarcating line between the written and unwritten constitution? The answer is that a written constitution is predominantly written and an unwritten constitution is predominantly unwritten. The distinction between the written and unwritten constitutions is not scientific. The former is precise, definite and systematic. The l
atter is unsystematic, indefinite and unprecise.

Merits of Written Constitution:

In the third place, a written constitution is a must in a federal form of government. In a federation the central government and the provincial government both derive their power from the constitution and it is imperative that which power belongs to whom must be clearly laid down in the body of the constitution. There is no better way of having it than getting all such powers written down in the body of the constitution. So a federation will be unworkable without a written constitution.

Demerits of Written Constitution:

In the first place, a written constitution has the disadvantage of its too much details and rigidity. The constitution of the USA with 7,000 words is a model of brevity, whereas the 1950 constitution of India with 395 Articles and eight Schedules is the wordiest of all national constitutions. The rigidity hampers growth and adjustment to the changing social and economic conditions. And so there is the inherent danger of a revolution or political upheaval under a written constitution.

In the second place, a written constitution is a lengthy affair. This unusually lengthiness may lead to disputes and litigations. Experience shows that some written constitutions are too much detailed. They invite disputes and litigation. In other words, they inject too much rigidity in cases where flexibility is preferable. Again, since a very long constitution says too many things on too many subjects, it must be amended time and again. This will make the constitution still longer.

Merits of Unwritten Constitution:

In the second place, there is little scope for revolt or political turmoil under an unwritten constitution, because there is a lot of flexibility in the constitution. So it meets an emergency half-way and avoids bloodshed and revolutions. So a government under an unwritten constitution is more durable than that under a written one. For example, there have been rare occasions for England to face any serious political upheaval.

Demerits of Unwritten Constitution:

In the first place, an unwritten constitution is indefinite, vague and unprecise. Since nothing is put into writing, there is every likelihood of abuse of powers by the authorities. There is also the danger of conflicts about the power and jurisdiction of various organs of government.

Lastly, it makes the legislature all-powerful, which may introduce drastic changes in the constitution detrimental to the interest of the nation.

Conclusion:

The advantages and disadvantages of the written and unwritten constitution mentioned above are rather theoretical. The success of a government does not depend on the written or un-written elements of it. While the constitution of England is un-written, that of the USA is written. Both are the leading democracies in the world.

It is not known that any country failed to attain its goals for want of a written constitution or an unwritten one. Although England has no written constitution enshrining the fundamental rights, the people of England enjoy more fundamental rights and individual liberties than in any country of the world.

Actually, different methods suit different political and social systems. During the Second World War the parliamentary election in England was not held because of the war conditions. But in the same year the presidential election was held in the USA because it was a must under the written provisions of the constitution. There was no demand in the USA to scrap the written constitution on the ground that it is unworkable during emergency.

Essay # 6. Methods of Amending the Constitutions in Different Countries:

The constitution, like all laws, is to serve the needs of the contemporary society. For making such changes in the constitution there are different modes laid down in different constitutions.

These different procedures are significant. It may need something more than the parliamentary majority. There are additional requirements such as a joint session of both the houses of the law-making body. It sometimes needs more than one debate and the lapse of certain amount of time between the proposal and the debate.

The constitutions of England and Canada may be amended by the national legislature acing through a simple parliamentary majority. In some countries the constitution cannot be amended by the national law-making body alone.

Again, many constitutions cannot be amended by the legislature alone but may need action by other bodies as well. Thus the constitution of USA can be amended only by:

(i) A two-thirds majority vote in each house of the Congress or

(ii) A convention called by the two-thirds of the states – with subsequent ratification, in either case, by the legislatures or especially elected conventions of three-fourths of the states.

In India the constitution can be amended by two-thirds majority in each house of the parliament. In cases where it involves a division of power between the union and the states the amendment must be approved by half of the states.

Some popular voting is called for in the constitutional amendment of some countries. For example, an amendment of the constitution of Australia can be done through some sort of popular voting. Thus, after obtaining an absolute majority in the parliament, the amendment must secure a majority vote in a popular referendum.

The Belgian constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of both the houses of parliament but only after a dissolution of that body and an intervening election. The constitution of Japan needs a two-thirds vote in the parliament to be followed by a popular referendum.

The parliament of Denmark after adoption of a constitutional amendment is to be dissolved and the new parliament constituted after fresh election must support the amendment. The constitution of Ireland is amenable by a simple majority of both the houses of parliament subject to approval by a popular referendum.

In Switzerland all constitutional amendments must be approved by a majority vote in a national referendum followed by a favourable decision in the majority of the cantons. These amendments may be initiated by a popular petition signed by one lakh voters or by the national legislature.

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[PDF] Paragraph on the Balance of Terror | Hindi | International Politics

Here is a paragraph on the ‘Balance of Terror’ especially written for school and college students in Hindi language.

केनेथ वॉल्टज का मत है कि द्वितीय महायुद्ध के बाद जिस द्वि-ध्रुवीय विश्व व्यवस्था का जन्म हुआ उसकी सहायता से हम कम-से-कम विश्व की दोनों महाशक्तियों के बीच सीधा संघर्ष रोकने में सफल हुए, क्योंकि सोवियत संघ और अमरीका की शक्ति लगभग बराबर होने की वजह से दोनों के बीच शक्ति सन्तुलन कायम रहा है ।

विंस्टन चर्चिल ने इसे ‘आतंक का सन्तुलन’ (Balance of Terror) कहकर पुकारा है । अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शान्ति बनी रही, क्योंकि दोनों महानतम शक्तियों के बीच परमाणु अस्त्रों का सन्तुलन बना रहा । किसी राइट की भी मान्यता है कि निरस्त्रीकरण से सम्भवत: युद्ध अधिक होने की प्रवृत्ति विकसित होती है ।

उसका कहना है कि युद्ध होने की सम्भावना उस समय तक अधिक रहती है जब राज्यों के पास हथियार कम हों । कारण यह है कि यदि उनके पास प्रचुर हथियार हैं तो वे एक-दूसरे को नष्ट करने की शक्ति हाथ में होने के कारण एक-दूसरे को रोकते रहेंगे ।

परन्तु यदि उनके पास हथियार थोड़े हैं तो युद्ध की नीति का बिना अधिक झिझक एवं संकोच के उपयोग करेंगे । परमाणु के नए हथियार युद्ध का सहारा लेने की अनिच्छा पैदा कर देते हैं और निरस्त्रीकरण यह सम्भावना पैदा कर देता है कि राष्ट्र अपेक्षाकृत कम खर्च में विजय हासिल कर सकते हैं ।

इस दृष्टि से ‘आतंक के सन्तुलन’ का सिद्धान्त इस सम्मावना को चिन्तन से बाहर कर देता है कि निरस्त्रीकरण अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय तनाव घटा सकता है या युद्ध को मिटा सकता है । इसके विपरीत स्वयं आतंक के सन्तुलन का जारी रहना उस उद्देश्य की सिद्धि के लिए आवश्यक समझा जाता है जिसे निरस्त्रीकरण हासिल करना चाहता है ।

द्वितीय महायुद्ध से बड़ा कोई युद्ध नहीं हुआ, क्योंकि सभी शक्तियां परमाणु युग की वास्तविकताओं से परिचित थीं । भले ही शक्ति का सन्तुलन स्थापित न हुआ हो, किन्तु आतंक और भय का सन्तुलन तो स्थापित हो ही चुका है ।

आज संयुक्त राज्य अमरीका ताईवान के मुद्दे पर चीन से, भारत-कश्मीर के मुद्दे पर पाकिस्तान से नहीं भिड़ना चाहता, क्योंकि परमाणु शस्त्रों का आतंक दोनों ओर से बराबर सा है । हर्ज यह रेखांकित करता है कि परमाणु युद्ध की भयानकता ने महाशक्तियों के विदेश नीति सम्बन्धी रुखों में बुनियादी परिवर्तन कर दिया है, क्योंकि अब स्थिति यह है कि यदि बलप्रयोग से बड़ा युद्ध भड़कने का खतरा हो तो राष्ट्र हमेशा इससे बचने की कोशिश करते रहते हैं ।

इसी कारण महाशक्तियों की परमाणु शक्ति इस अर्थ में ‘अनुलब्ध’ है कि परमाणु कार्यवाही के प्रभाव दोनों पक्षों द्वारा अस्वीकार्य समझे जाते हैं । असल में हर्ज इससे भी आगे जाता है और कहता है कि युद्ध के बड़ा बन जाने का भय परम्परागत हथियारों के प्रयोग पर भी रुकावट लगाता है ।

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[PDF] Essay on Block Development Officer (BDO) | Public Administration

After reading this essay you will learn about the powers and functions of Block Development Officer (BDO).

Essay # 1. Powers of Block Development Officer (BDO.):

(a) As a Chief Executive Officer:

(i) Block Development Officer is to see that the plans and programmes approved by the appropriate authorities are executed efficiently.

(ii) He signs contracts and authenticates all letters and documents for and on behalf of the Panchayat Samiti subject to the prior approval of the appropriate authority.

(iii) He draws and disburses money out of the Panchayat Samiti Fund.

(iv) He takes steps to remove any irregularity pointed out by the auditors about Panchayat Samiti accounts.

(v) He inspects on behalf of the Panchayat Samiti, the financial position of the Panchayats with special reference to the levy of taxes, and their recovery of loans and maintenance of regular accounts.

(vi) He helps Panchayats to draw up plans and see that they conform to the plans and priorities of the Panchayat Samiti. He also sees that the construction programmes undertaken by the Panchayat conform to the standards laid down and completed within the scheduled time.

(b) As a Head of the Block Office:

(i) BDO exercises supervision and control over the extension officers and other employees of the Panchayat Samiti and the staff borne on transferred schemes. He can censure a Panchayat Samiti employee under him, subject to the right of appeal of the latter to the standing committee on taxation, finance and administration.

(ii) He formulates annual budget and places it before the Panchayat Samiti, prepares the annual administrative report and quarterly progress reports for the consideration of the Panchayat Samiti and transmits the same to Zila Parishad and the State Government.

He supplies copies of resolutions and proceedings of the Panchayat Samiti and standing committees to the Zila Parishad or the State Government or their duly authorized officers.

(iii) He reports without delay all cases of fraud, embezzlement, theft or loss of money or other property of the Panchayat Samiti.

(c) As a Secretary:

(i) He issues notices for the meetings of the Panchayat Samiti and standing committees under instructions from the Pradhan and Chairman of the respective committees.

(ii) He attends all such meetings himself or authorizes a senior officer subordinate to him to attend such meetings. However, he does not exercise right to vote while attending such meetings.

(iii) He causes minutes to be recorded and circulated.

(d) Emergency Functions:

In case of fire, floods or epidemics, he directs the execution of any work or act and incurring of expenditure upon it which normally, requires the sanction of Panchayat Samiti or its standing committee. In every such case, the action taken and reaction thereof requires reporting to the competent authority.

It may not be out of place to point out that the role of B.D.O. in Panchayat Samiti meetings is more than secretarial. He can render advice regarding the legality and the various consequences of a proposed course of action.

Owing to his long experience, knowledge of precedents and insight into legal, financial and administrative matters, his advice is given every consideration. He sometimes acts as a moderator when the Samiti fails to compose the differences. A competent and sympathetic B.D.O. can win the trust and respect of the Panchayat Samiti members.

He is assisted by a team of experts in agriculture, co-operation, animal husbandry, cottage industries, etc. Commenting on the significance of Block organisation, Ramaswamy remarks, “Block organisation is the symbol of cooperation between a democratic government and its free people. It is only now that the block officers, have started going to the farms and homes of the villagers to do what the villagers wanted.”

Essay # 2. Functions of Block Development Officer:

Next comes the village level worker who is in-charge of about ten to twelve villages and performs multi-purpose functions. He is generally a matriculate. In the initial stages of the community development programme the village level worker was portrayed as the hinge upon which the development programme in the village revolved.

As a multiple- purpose functionary, he has to serve as common agency of all the development departments and educate the people to adopt the programmes of technical and financial assistance.

His main functions are as follows:

(a) Agricultural, Education, Store and Distribution of Agricultural Supplies:

It was an important function in the initial stages. However, with the emergence of co-operative stores, the distribution function has been taken away from him. Through camps, individual talks, group meetings and demonstration, he imparts agricultural education which means making the villagers aware of fertilizers, improved seeds and use of insecticides.

(b) Social Education:

Formerly he explained to the people, the philosophy of the community development programme and the opportunities available under it. Now, this responsibility mostly devolves upon Gram Sabha and Samitis. However, he has to do a lot of explaining in Gram Sabhas and Panchayats. In the words of Dr. S. C. Jain, “The V.L.W.’s role has become as one of an enabler rather than that of the initiator.

(c) Production Plan and Allied Services:

Since 1957, the V.L.W. has started helping the Village Panchayats in framing their production programmes and executing and reviewing them. He draws up the plan in accordance with instructions from above, summons Gram Sabha meetings, explains the plan to Gram Sabha and sanctifies it as village plan after the rectification of the plan by the Gram Sabha.

He secures technical and financial assistance through the help of Extension Officer and by expediting applications for loan or subsidy.

(d) Attending Works Programme:

In the initial stages, he persuaded the villagers to make contribution to the work programmes, organised ‘Sram dan’, secured the assistance of overseer, maintained record of works and secured grants from the government for executing the programme. This function is claiming comparatively less attention now.

(e) Organising Co-operatives and other Auxiliary Agencies:

The village level worker organises co-operatives, youth clubs, Bal Mandirs and Mahila Mandals. He convenes their meetings quite frequently.

(f) House Keeping:

He sends reports and returns and maintains records. He attends staff meetings at the Block Headquarters and attends to supervisors and visitors who call upon him when he is on official tour.

(g) Attending Panchayat Samiti and Gram Sabha Meetings:

He is required to attend Panchayat and Gram Sabha Meetings in his circle. These meetings are convened on an average about five per month and take nearly five and a half days.

(h) Miscellaneous Jobs:

Besides the functions already enumerated, he has been entrusted some miscellaneous functions as supplying medical first-aid, taking surveys, participation in small saving campaigns and other functions of emergent nature.

Keeping in view the relative importance of functions performed by him, we can, therefore, sum up that Village Level Worker (V.L.W.) devotes 80 per cent of his time on agriculture. His multipurpose character thus stands eclipsed.

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[PDF] Field-Stations: Legal Status and Grading | Public Administration

After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Introduction to Field-Stations 2. Legal Status of Field-Stations 3. Grading and Classification 4. Headquarters-Field Relationship.

Introduction to Field-Stations:

We consider the organization of the department as it functions at the seat of government. But the entire business of government is not carried on in the capital of the State. The people to whose needs the government and administration cater are spread all over the country and the more important services have to be carried to their very door.

It will not do to have a single school at Delhi and ask the people to send their children to that school.

Therefore, to serve the people, establishments are created throughout the length and breadth of the country called field establishments. Thus field establishments are those which work in the ‘field’ away from the headquarters.

The headquarters may be defined as the central place of a given area, where its highest government or administrative authorities are located and from which administrative direction and control fan out over the entire area.

The terms ‘headquarters’ and ‘field’ are relative to the area we have in mind. When we think of the whole of India, New Delhi is the headquarters and the rest of the country is the field. But when we refer to the States, the State-capitals are ‘headquarters’ instead of being considered mere ‘field stations’ of the Central Government.

Similarly, in the district the tehsils are the field-stations and the district is the headquarters, though district is also a field station of the State. In the case of diplomatic service the embassies which form the field-offices are scattered all over the world.

Legal Status of Field-Stations:

The reason for creating field-stations is that the needs of the people may be satisfied locally and easily; for instance, if a person has to go to purchase a post-card to Delhi, it is not only expensive for him but also greatly troublesome.

Therefore, to make available to the people the services of the government at their doors and to enable them to make full use of the services of the government it is desirable that post offices should be established at short distances.

The field-offices, their number, location and grade may be prescribed either by statutes or by administrative orders. The question as to whether it is desirable that the legislature should itself by statute seek to fix the number and location of field-offices and the boundaries of these offices or leave this matter to administrative determination, is one which cannot be answered in absolute terms.

If established by the legislature, the field-station will enjoy greater security and freedom than if established by the executive. Both the systems seem to be extreme.

A better plan would be that the executive establishes the field-stations but the legislature keeps control over the determination of their number, location and grade through the system of grants. It will have many advantages. In the first place, it will relieve the legislature of the burden of running into administrative details.

The legislature cannot legitimately decide technical questions of location, relations and organizations. Secondly, it would give flexibility to the whole system and avoid rigidity in administration as statutory regulation usually creates.

Thirdly, the executive is the better judge of the needs of the department and of the location, number and other things concerning the field-stations. It can alone provide for better arrangement.

Grading and Classification of Field-Stations:

A matter which is of great importance is that of grading field-stations according to their importance and of classifying them according to such grade into a hierarchy of offices constituting a single unified service. All the stations are not of equal importance and so they cannot be governed by one uniform standard.

For the sake of administrative convenience it is desirable that the various field-stations should be classified into various grades, for example, railway stations of A, B and C classes.

The classification of field-stations will bring a number of advantages, such as:

(a) It would make possible the building of a hierarchy of offices constituting a single unified service.

(b) It would help the government in prescribing a uniform standard of work for all the stations of the same grade.

(c) It would make possible the allotment of money to these stations according to their grade. In the absence of such gradation it would be difficult for the government to assess the needs of each and every station individually.

(d) It would give the headquarters an idea of the expenditure require for a particular type of field-station and enable it to check extravagance.

(e) It would be possible to make transfers of officers and employees from one station to another which is of the same grade.

(f) It would help the government in determining pay and allowances of the employees of the field-stations of various grades as positions can be graded according to the grades of the stations.

(g) In case of promotion and demotion, an officer may be transferred from a low-grade station to a higher-grade and from a higher-grade to a low-grade station respectively. This would create more interest and efficiency in work. A good example of field-stations in India is provided by the post offices and railways.

The head post office of Patiala differs in grade from the post office at Rajpura. Similarly, the railway station at Ambala differs in grade from the railway station at Patiala.

Sub-Stations:

Another important problem affecting the establishment of field-stations is whether there should be sub-stations. If so, what should be their fractions and relations to the stations and headquarters. A sub-station should not be confused with a less important station.

Although there may not be any difference in respect of their nature and importance of work, yet there is a marked difference between their status and authority.

When sub-stations are created, the line of authority runs to the central office through the stations of which they are sub-stations, e.g., the head post office of Patiala has a number of sub-post offices in the district under its jurisdiction which are sub-stations. The responsibility from the Bahadurgarh post office runs first to the Patiala head post office of which it is sub-office and then to the general post office at Ambala.

Where no provision is made for sub-stations, the line of authority in all cases runs direct from the station to the central office, e.g., the Patiala railway station is not responsible to the Ambala railway station but directly to the central office at Delhi.

The advantages to be secured through a sub-station system are “First, a decreolization of responsibility from the stand-point of the central office; second, the making possible of a more effective co-operative relations between contiguous stations; third, a lessening, in many cases, of the expense of maintaining sub-ordinate stations; and finally, a lessening, in many cases, of the work and expense involved in furnishing sub-stations with supplies and in subjecting them to physical inspection.”

Headquarters-Field Relationship:

Headquarter signify the central or supervising officer usually stationed in the capital of the country. To be more concrete ‘the head quarters organisation of the government of India comprises a number of Ministries and Departments.

The Field offices on the other hand comprises the offices which get approval before taking a
dministrative action from the headquarters and are controlled aid directed by the latter. In the Indian administrative system headquarters may be considered synonymous with the secretariat whereas the term field imply attached and subordinate offices.

Significance of Field:

The impact of legislation or an administrative action is discernible from its being well administered. Administration falls on the field agencies. As such, criterion of good governance lies in the proper functioning of the field agencies.

The importance of field services has become manifold due to the emergence of concept of welfare state technological advances particularly in the domains of communication and transportation; the growing eagerness of the masses to have services at their door; enhancement of regulatory activities; and preponderating number of employees required at fields.

In Delhi for instance one out of 160 central employees of Delhi works at the Headquarters as the rest are functioning in the field.

Criteria for Formation of Field:

(i) Topography;

(ii) Historical consideration;

(iii) Political pressures and need for citizen convenience and participation;

(iv) Nature of work to be undertaken by the department;

(v) Administrative Economy necessitating formation of field service and availability of funds with the Department.

Thus the field-headquarters relationship is an important problem in field establishment administration. The need of decentralization today is more felt because of the vast social welfare and development activities which a modern State undertakes, nevertheless it remains a fact that adequate provisions need be made for the direction and supervision of field-stations.

The need of decentralisation today is more felt because of the vast social welfare and development activities which a modern state undertakes, nevertheless it remains a fact that adequate provisions need to be made for the direction and supervision of field-stations. The relations between the headquarters and field-stations may be organized in either of the two ways, i.e., unitary or territorial and multiple or functional.

The relations between the headquarters and field-stations may be organized in either of the two ways, i.e., unitary or territorial and multiple or functional.

(i) Unitary System:

In the unitary or territorial system, the line of authority runs from the clerks to the officer- in-charge of the field-station and from him to the headquarters of the government. Under it, the head of the field-station is placed in complete charge of all the activities of his station and the various section clerks are his subordinates.

The head of the station may be called in this sense the general manager of the station. Consequently he is held responsible not only for his own acts but also for those of his subordinates.

All communications between the station and headquarters pass through him. A very good example of this system is the post office department. In a post office, there are several clerks dealing individually with registration, savings bank, money order, parcel, prize bonds, etc. All these clerks are responsible first to the postmaster of the office and through him to regional postmaster and ultimately to the Director-General.

The advantages of unitary system are as follows;

(a) It avoids the general tendency to concentrate too much authority in the central office and thus become unwieldy;

(b) It ensures enough flexibility;

The disadvantages of the unitary systems are as under:

(a) It leads to divergence of policy and methods;

(b) There is no functional unity between the field-station and headquarters:

(ii) Multiple Systems:

In the multiple or functional type, the station is not looked upon as a unit but “as an assembly of units which are only loosely held together for matters of general administration by the authority of the head of the station.”

Here, the line of authority runs direct from the division clerk to the head of the corresponding division at the headquarters. The units are subdivisions of the corresponding central divisions, e.g., the savings bank clerk of the post office of Patiala would be responsible to the savings bank clerk in the office of the Director-General of Post Offices.

Under this system the officer-in-charge of the station does not have much authority over the clerks working in his station. He is barely responsible for establishment duties of the station, like ensuring their regular attendance, maintaining discipline among them, supplying furniture and making seating arrangement.

Its advantages are as under:

(a) Under the multiple systems, the technical operations in fields come under the direct control and direction of central experts which ensure direct supervision and better efficiency;

(b) All questions of policy common to all and common matters are settled by central administration;

(c) As one administration does all what each would have to do for itself, it has the advantage of economy and will maintain uniformity.

The disadvantages of multiple systems are as follows:

(a) It seeks to concentrate too much authority in the central office resulting in unwieldiness and un-manageability;

(b) It makes flexibility difficult and does not ensure sufficient autonomy to the field- stations.

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[PDF] Essay on Budget: Top 4 Essays | Government | Public Administration

Here is an essay on ‘Budget’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Budget’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Budget

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Meaning of Budget
Essay on the Types of Budget
Essay on Budget as a Tool of Administration
Essay on the Principles of Budget-Making

Essay # 1. Meaning of Budget:

The word ‘budget’ is derived from a French word, Bougette, meaning a leather bag or wallet. The term was used for the first time in 1733 in a satire entitled ‘Opened the Budget’ pointed against Walpole’s financial plan for that year. The Chancellor of the Exchequer used to carry a leather bag containing papers on the financial plans for the country to the House of Commons.

So when he set off to place his financial plans before the House, he used to open his ‘budget’, that is, the bag, and it is because of this association of the financial plan with the ‘bougette’ that the financial statement of a country has come to be known as budget.

The term budget in modern times, therefore, denotes that document which contains estimates of revenue and expenditure of a country, usually for the fixed period of one year.

Some of the definitions of the word ‘budget’ are the following:

(i) “A budget is a financial plan summarizing the financial experience of the past stating a current plan and projecting it over a specified period of time in future.” —Dimock

(ii) “A budget is a financial statement, prepared in advance of the opening of a fiscal year of the estimated revenues and proposed expenditures of the given organisation for the ensuring fiscal year.” —Harlod R. Bruce

(iii) “Budget is a plan of financing for the incoming fiscal year. This involves an itemized estimate of all revenues on the one hand and all expenditures on the other.” —Munro

(iv) “Budget is a detail of estimated revenues and expenditures-a comparative chart of revenues and expenditures-and over and above this it is an authority and direction of the competent authority given for the collection of revenues and expenditure of public money.” —Wilne

(v) “Budget is a document containing a preliminary approved Plan of Public Revenue and Expenditure.” -Storum

(vi) “The budget in a modern state is a forecast and an estimate of all public receipts and expenses and for certain expenses and receipts an authorization to incur them and collect them.” —Rene Gaze

(vii) “Budget is a financial plan of government for a definite period.” —Taylor

From the above definitions of budget we conclude that the following are the elements of budget:

(i) It is a statement of expected revenue and proposed expenditure;

(ii) It requires some authority to sanction it;

(iii) It is for a limited period, generally it is annual;

(iv) It also sets forth the procedure and manner in which the collection of revenue and the administration of expenditures is to be executed.

The budget is the nucleus round which the financial activities of the state oscillate. It is both the scale and the limit of all the financial operations. However, it may be noted that the meaning of budget is no longer confined to a mere statement of the estimated revenue and expenditure. It is now given a wider meaning.

With the gradual development of financial management, it has come to include not only a plan of public revenue and expenditure but also “the entire condition of material finances as disclosed in the ministerial statement placed before the legislature and the orderly administration of the financial affairs of the Government.”

It “not only gives an account of the year’s ‘housekeeping’ and of the year to come so far as the State is concerned, but it is the basis of control of the financial affairs of the State regarded as a household. It sets in motion a continuous chain of events of great importance in the everyday work of the Government.”

According to Prof Willoughby, “It is, or should be, at once a report, an estimate and a proposal. It is, or should be, a document through which the Chief Executive…comes before the fund-raising and fund-granting authority and makes full report, regarding the manner in which he or his subordinates have administered affairs during the last completed year, in which he exhibits the present condition of the public treasury, and on the basis of such information, sets forth his programme of work for the year to come and the manner in which he proposes that such work shall be financed.” Thus, budget “is a proposed work programme, with estimates of the funds necessary to execute it.” It is a plan of action.

Essay # 2. Types of Budget:

The budgets can be classified on the basis of the following principles:

(i) The period covered.

(ii) Number of budgets introduced in the legislature.

(iii) The overall financial position depicted in the budget.

(iv) The principle adopted in taking the items of income and expenditure in the budget.

(v) The classification of the receipts and expenditure in the budget.

On the basis of these principles the budgets can be either:

(i) Annual budgets or long-term budgets.

(ii) Single or plural budgets.

(iii) Surplus, deficit or balanced budgets.

(iv) Cash budget or revenue budget.

(v) Departmental budget or performance budget.

A brief description of these various types follows:

1. Annual or long-term budgets:

Generally, the Government budgets are annual, i.e., they are prepared for one year. In India, England and most of the other commonwealth countries the financial year begins on 1st of April and ends on the 31st of March, but in the U.S.A., Australia, Sweden and Italy the dates are 1st July and 30th June. In France these dates are 1st of January and 31st of December.

Some countries have adopted the policy of planned economy and to meet the needs of long-term planning, they have resorted to long-term budgeting, i.e., preparing the budget for three or more years. Such budgets are in fact long-term planning rather than long-term budgets because what is provided for is financial planning over a period of years to finance the plan.

These countries spread the estimated plan expenditure over a number of years. The legislature approves the plan along with its estimated expenditure, but that does not amount to actual voting of appropriations for the entire period. Every year the national budget will include the expenditure on the plan for that year which will be approved by the legislature.

2. Single or plural budget:

When the estimates of all the Government undertakings find place in one budget, it is known as single budget. The advantage of single budget is that it reveals the overall financial position of the Government, as a whole.

But if there are separate department-wise budgets which are passed separately by the legislature, it is called plural budgeting. In India we have two budgets—one for the railways and the other for all the other remaining departments. The practice of having a separate railway budget started in 1921. In England there is single budget.

3. Surplus, deficit or balanced budget:

A budget is surplus if the estimated revenues are in excess of the estimated expenditure. But if
the anticipated revenues fall short of the anticipated expenditure, it is a deficit budget. According to the economists, a deficit budget is a sign of the country’s making progress. A balanced budget is one wherein the anticipated revenues equal the/anticipated expenditure. The budgets are generally deficit budgets.

4. Cash or revenue budget:

A cash budget is one wherein the estimates of the various items of income and expenditure include the amounts actually to be received or spent in one year.

In revenue budget the revenue and expenditure, accruing in one financial year, are budgeted in that financial year irrespective of the fact whether the revenues are realized or the expenditure is incurred in that financial year. In India, Britain and U.S.A., there is cash budgeting, in France and other continental countries there is revenue budgeting.

5. Departmental or performance budget:

The present practice is to have departmental budgets, i.e., the revenues and expenditure of one department are grouped under it. It does not give any information as to the activity or performance for which money is budgeted. The performance budget is one where the total expenditure of a particular project is grouped under the head of the particular programme.

It is prepared in terms of functions, programmes, activities and projects, for example, in the case of Education (a function), it will be divided into programmes like those of Primary, Secondary and Higher Education. Each programme will be divided into activities, for example, training of teachers is an activity. Project is the last unit of functional classification.

It signifies such an activity as is of a capital nature, such as, construction of a school building. The A.R.C. has recommended the adoption of performance budgeting in all the departments and organizations of the Central and State Governments which were in direct charge of development programmes.

Essay # 3. Budget as a Tool of Administration:

Budget today has become one of the primary tools of financial administration. It is “the master financial plan of the Government. It brings together estimates of anticipated revenues and proposed expenditures implying the schedule of activities to be undertaken and the means of financing these activities.”

Budget is the very core of democratic government and in the words of Harold Smith, “The objectives of the Budget should be to implement democracy and provide a tool which will be helpful in the efficient execution of the functions and services of government… The budget is a device for consolidating the various interests, objectives, desires, and needs of our citizens into a programme whereby they may jointly provide for their safety, convenience and comfort. It is the most important single current document relating to the social and economic affairs of the people.”

It lays emphasis on the need for state programmes to be executed as efficiently as possible so that maximum results are obtained for the money spent on them. “In one sense the entire budgetary process can be said to have as a single objective the attainment of economy and efficiency; the determination of how the country’s scarce resources can best be served by the diversion of scarce resources, through taxation and other methods, from private to public use and by the allocation of those resources among various Government uses. Such a determination covers both the questions what programmes should be undertaken and how they should be executed.”

Budget as an instrument of social and economic policy:

Apart from budget being a “tool of administration” and the basis of an orderly finance, it has now become a very powerful instrument of social and economic policy. A Gladstone observed, “Budgets are not merely matters of arithmetic but in a thousand ways go to the root of prosperity of individuals and strength of kingdoms”.

The modern states are welfare states and as such budget is used as means for the promotion of welfare objectives. This aspect of the budget has assumed all the more importance with the adoption of socialistic pattern of society by our Government.

Besides realizing the plans for higher production in various sectors, the Government aims at correcting the inequalities in the distribution of wealth by higher taxation for the rich and proportionately lower taxation and sometimes even exemption for the poorer section of community through the instrumentality of budget.

In the days of laissez-faire, budget was a simple statement of estimated income and expenditure, but now in the modern social welfare states it has become an instrument of promoting the social and economic welfare of the people.

The budget is awaited anxiously by the people. It has wide ramifications. It plays a vital role in the economy of a state. Every citizen is interested in it. From the budget the citizens can know what benefits they are going to derive and how much tax they will have to pay.

The taxation policy of the Government in the Budget may lead to narrowing down of the class distinctions and inequalities. The production policy as reflected in the Budget may help in removing poverty, eradicating unemployment and avoiding misdistribution of wealth.

It can check inflation and enable the citizens to lead their life in safety and with comfort and happiness. To cut short, budget has tremendous social and economic implications in modern states. It is much more than a mere national balance-sheet.

Lloyd-George in his People’s Budget of 1909 utilized for the first time the potentialities of the fiscal instrument for social welfare. In his Budget speech, he said “Four spectres haunt the poor old age, accident, sickness and unemployment. We are going to exercise them. We are going to drive hunger from the hearth. We mean to banish the workhouse from the horizon of every man in the land.”

By taxing the rich on a progressive scale and utilizing the proceeds in providing social amenities, such as better housing, educational and medical facilities, etc., for the poorer classes has come to be accepted as one of the most important objectives of budget. Our Government is alive to this aspect of budget as a means for the establishment of a socialistic pattern of society.

Budgeting and planning:

Mr. Sachin Chaudhuri, while presenting the Budget proposals for 1966-67 to the Indian Lok Sabha on February 28, 1966, said: “The Budget of the Government of India is a major instilment for implementing our Plans and policies. It has to be framed, therefore, in response to current economic trends as well as the long-term requirements of the economy.”

Budgeting is, therefore, an instrument for short-term as well as long-term planning. “In restricted sense, budgeting is planning, the primary concern of both the agencies is to facilitate the formulation and selection of policies and programmes which are most likely to achieve the goals of government. But they differ from one another in some important respects. For instance, planning in terms of whole range of government policy requires a perspective of time and a broad perception of the inter-relationship between policies. On the other hand, budgeting is simply a matter of providing most economically for already agreed upon programmes. In this regard, budgeting may be said to take over where planning leaves off.”

The relation between planning and budgeting is very close. In the words of Thavaraj, “The marriage of ‘planning’ and ‘budgeting’ must begin at the ‘grass roots’ level in the respective departments and agencies
.” The programming, planning and budgeting staff in the various government agencies must work as a team to exercise continuing surveillance of the respective programmes.

The programmes must be reviewed and evaluated at the departmental level in relation to the objectives of the department, not only in terms of the needs of today or next fiscal year, but also in terms of the overall departmental goals at least for several years ahead. Programmes established many years ago must be re-evaluated in the light of conditions of today and the years ahead.

Evaluation must be made between “desirable” programmes and “essential” programmes. Non-essential programmes must be eliminated.

Essay # 4. Principles of Budget-Making:

Budget is an effective instrument of economic and social changes. It is the basis without which there can be no lasting social progress. It is desirable that it should conform to certain budgetary principles.

The more important principles of budget-making are the following:

1. Budget should be a balanced one:

Budget should be a balanced one, i.e., the estimated expenditure should not exceed the revenue or income. When the amounts of the expenditure and revenue in a budget are equal or nearly so, it is called a ‘Balanced Budget’. If the expenditure is less than the anticipated revenue it is a ‘Surplus Budget’ and if the expenditure is more than the anticipated revenue, it is called a ‘Deficit Budget’.

“The balancing of the Budget,” says, Mr. P.K. Wattal, “is the first requisite of financial stability, and occupies the same place in the financial administration as the maintenance of law and order in the Executive administration. On the other hand, un-balanced budgets are bound sooner or later to weaken the faith of investors and lead to monetary inflation, which if uncontrolled will terminate in national disaster.”

An occasional deficit budget, however, need not cause worry. The newer trends of economic thought consider deficit budget in certain circumstances not only excusable, but also necessary.

According to them, a deficit budget can cure the ills from which the modern capitalist economy suffers. Deficit budget has now become a common phenomenon of the developing countries. It is resorted to, to meet the huge costs of development plans. However, it is not safe to indulge in deficit budget beyond a certain point.

2. Budget formulation is the responsibility of the executive:

As the Chief Executive is responsible for running the administration, he is in the best position to say what funds are required for it. It should, therefore, be the duty of the Chief Executive to formulate the Budget. But the Budget framing is a stupendous task and he must, therefore, be aided and advised by a body of specialists.

In India, the Ministry of Finance, in England the Treasury and in U.S.A. the Bureau of the Budget, help their respective Chief Executives in the Budget-planning. In Parliamentary government, there exists the well accepted principle ‘that no demands for grants can be made except on the recommendation of the Executive’.

The principle also makes it clear that it is the function of the Executive alone to prepare the budget. The Parliament can decrease or refuse the demands presented to it by the Executive but it cannot increase them.

This principle is of great merit because the Chief Executive being the actual expending authority is the better judge of how much money is required for a particular purpose and if more is given to the Executive than what it needs, it cannot be made responsible for money it did not need.

That would obviously lead to wastage and extravagance. This last principle is not strictly followed in the U.S.A. as there is a separation of powers and all legislative functions including those of money bills are those of the Congress which is accordingly competent to decrease as well as increase expenditure and taxation.

3. Estimates should be on a cash basis:

The principle of the cash basis of the Budget means that it should be prepared on the basis of actual receipts and expenditure expected during the year and not on the basis of receipts which are to be realized in some other years or the expenditure which is ordered in that year but is likely to be incurred in the next financial year, e.g., if certain sums on account of arrears of tax relating to the year 1971-72 are realized in the year 1972-73 they should be shown in the receipts estimates of the latter year and not of the former.

Similarly, if the liability for any payments was incurred in the former year but was actually met in the latter year, it should be shown in the expenditure of the latter year only.

In the words of P.K. Wattal; “One advantage of having cash estimates is that the public accounts can be closed very much earlier than when they are prepared on a demand and liability basis. In some European countries, where the latter practice is followed, the determination of the final surplus or deficit requires years and even decades. Delayed accounts lose much of their value for purposes of financial control. The French Budget for 1920 was finally closed in the beginning of 1937.”

4. Budgeting should be done on the basis of gross and not net income:

Budget should present a clear-cut picture of the gross and not the net income of the country. Both the receipts and expenditure should be fully shown in the Budget and not merely the resultant net position. For example, if there is a department with an estimated expenditure of Rs. 45 lakhs and receipts of Rs. 35 lakhs it should show in the Budget both the expenditure and receipts and not merely Rs. 10 lakhs only.

If the department prepares the estimates on the net basis, it would mean that it would approach legislature for grant of Rs. 10 lakhs only and hence deprive the legislature of its control over the expenditure of Rs. 45 lakhs, which it met out of its receipts. Gross budgeting is, therefore, essential to ensure complete financial control of the Legislature.

There are exceptions to this general rule of gross-budgeting in India some of which are only apparent but some are real. The main exception to this rule is the estimating (and accounting) of land revenue collections.

The lambardar, from time immemorial, is paid, in lieu of his services for the collection of land revenue, five percent on the revenue he collects. This is known as ‘pachotra’ which he deducts from the gross collections made by him and credits only the net collections in the government treasury. The other exceptions which are apparent but not real are in regard to ‘refund of revenue’, ‘receipt on capital account’, etc.

5. Estimating should be, as far as possible, exact:

Estimates provided in the Budget should be, as far as possible, exact. There should be neither too much of over-estimating nor under-estimating. While money should be provided for all necessary expenditure, the amount provided for should be the absolute minimum.

If there is over-estimating of expenditure people are unnecessarily heavily taxed and if there is underestimating, the whole budget may be thrown out of gear when it comes to execution.

It is a tendency on the part of the departments in India to under-estimate their income and over-estimate their expenditure although there are clear instructions to th
e Heads of all the Ministries, that they should try to achieve economy and avoid waste as far as possible.

According to Sri Ashok Chanda, this tendency to over-estimate spending capacity arises from two causes firstly, it is assumed that the Finance Ministry will in any case reduce the allotment requested and, therefore, it is better to ask for more and secondly, the inclusion of schemes and large provisions creates both politically and administratively an impression of efficiency and energy in the sponsoring ministries.

Close and exact estimating can be achieved by taking past three average figures of the receipts and expenditure under various heads as the starting basis and making appropriate variations due to special circumstances which can be foreseen.

Secondly, estimates should be itemized, that is the detailed estimates should be divided into major-heads, minor- heads and sub-heads and detailed heads of revenue and expenditure.

Close budgeting also means that the services for which provision has been made and the particular items included in any vote should be specified and that no demand of ‘lump sum’ amount under any head should be granted.

Of course, in some departments, such as Public Works Department, block grants cannot be avoided because we cannot have definite assessment of the amount likely to be spent on repairs and maintenance of government buildings, canals or roads, etc.

But, subject to these exceptions, the general rule should be that no demands for lump sums for unspecified purposes should be sanctioned. Such demands escape Parliamentary control of Public expenditure and should be granted only in very exceptional cases.

6. Annuality of the budget:

The principle of annuality is one of the most important principles of budgetism. It means that the budget should be prepared on the annual basis. In other words, it means that the legislature should grant money to the Executive for one year.

A year is a reasonable period of time, for which the legislature can afford to give financial authority to the Executive. It is also the minimum period which is necessary to execute the financial programme. But annuality of the Budget does not mean that there should be no long-term planning.

All those countries which have adopted the policy of planned development do have long-term budgeting, but these long- term plans do not involve actual using of appropriations for the entire period of the plan by the legislature though it may be called to approve the plan in principles and broad outlines as is done in the case of our Five Year Plans.

7. Rule of lapse:

The annuality principle of budgeting also implies that money left unspent during the year for which it was sanctioned must lapse to the Public Treasury and the Government cannot spend it unless re-sanctioned in the next year’s budget.

This rule of lapse is essential for effective financial control. If the unspent balance of one year could be carried out for expenditure in future years, it would make the departments independent of the control of the legislature till the time their accumulated balances are spent. But this rule is defective from the point of view of economical planning of expenditure.

The departments, knowing that if they do not utilize grants, they shall lapse, have no incentive for economy and therefore, towards the end of the financial year, they spend it lavishly with scant regard to its urgency or utility.

In our country, the Central and State Governments can constitute reserves or reserve funds, either by allotment of sums from the revenues of a year or series of years or from grants of contributions made by other governments and outside agencies, “with the object of expending the moneys accumulated in the funds on the specific and particular purposes for which they have been constituted.”

While the general principle of ‘rule of lapse’ is accepted as a matter of policy, the Finance Ministry has assured, time and again, the Administrative Ministries that wherever grants have not been used to the full extent for valid reasons, the Finance Ministry would be prepared to consider proposals to allot provision for the unexpended amounts either in the original budget of the coming year or by means of supplementary grants in that year provided the purposes for which these amounts were originally included in the sanctioned grants continue to be operative.

It is hoped that with this assurance the Ministries concerned would take positive steps to prevent the rush of expenditure in the closing months of the year, and also to refrain from making purchases in a hurry merely to avoid lapse of grants.

8. Treasury control:

The legislature authorizes the government to spend money but it does not direct them how to spend it. That is the job of the government itself.

The best system of direction and internal control can be seen in the working of the British Treasury in England where it concerns itself not only in regard to the preparation of budget but also exercises day-to-day supervision over the flow of finances to the operating agencies. Through its power of sanctioning money and employment of personnel, it has come to exercise managerial control over the operating departments.

9. Executive discretion:

The Executive must be given sufficient discretion in the matter of allotment of appropriation if it is to exercise supervision over the activities of the spending departments.

M. Rene Stourum has rightly said:

“The pilot in-charge of steering a vessel is the only competent judge of the position and of the speed be has need to give his sails because he alone is posted in such a way as to know the force and the direction of the winds and the currents, which may hinder or delay his movement.”

The legislature should provide for broadly defined functions of the spending agencies and the executive should be left alone in the matter of determining the precise means of operation to achieve the purpose set forth by law. It should possess the power to make re-appropriations from one minor head to another.

It should also have the power and means to meet financial emergencies. The provision of a Contingency Fund in India in the name of the President to meet financial exigencies is a fine example of executive discretion.

10. The form of estimate should correspond to the form of account:

This principle means that the budgetary heads should be the same as those of accounts. This facilitates budget preparation, budgetary control and the keeping of accounts.

11. Revenue and capital parts of the budget should be kept distinct:

This principle means that overall surplus or deficit may be found out by taking both into account.

12. Single budget:

Lastly, it is also an important principle of Budget making that the government should have a single budget incorporating all revenues as well as expenditures of the government. A single budget presents to the people a clear-cut picture of the financial transactions of the government as a whole.

But if there are a number of department-wise budgets, some of them may show a surplus and others a deficit. It will not thus be possible to know the net financial position of the government as a whole except by complicated calculations and adjustments.

On the basis of this principle, it is also wrong to prepare ‘Extraordinary Budgets’ for special purposes. An exception to this princip
le of unity of Budget is, however, sometimes made in some countries including India when separate budget is prepared for commercial enterprises such as Railways.

India has had a separate budget for Railways since 1924. The Railways are free to keep their profits for their own development after they had made their own contributions to the general revenue.

According to Dimock, the important Budget principles are publicity, clarity, comprehensiveness, unity, periodicity, accuracy and integrity. By publicity is meant that the budget should be made public and that there should be no secret session to consider the budget.

The principle of clarity means that the budget should be clearly understandable. Comprehensiveness means that it should give a complete picture of government revenues and expenditures.

One should be able to know the entire financial position of the government. By unity is meant that all government receipts should be consolidated into one general fund for financing all expenditures.

Periodicity means that the appropriations should be authorized for a fixed period and if money is not utilized within that period, it should either lapse, or should be re-appropriated. Accuracy means that the budget estimates should be based on accurate data.

The principle of integrity means that the budget should be implemented as enacted. There should be no departure from it. The above are the principles which are generally followed in every country with some minor differences of details.

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[PDF] Essay on Promotion of Employees | Public Administration

Here is an essay on the ‘Promotion of Employees’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Promotion of Employees’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on the Promotion of Employees

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Meaning of Promotion
Essay on the Types of Promotion
Essay on the Importance of Promotion
Essay on the Essentials of a Proper Promotion System
Essay on the Lines of Promotion
Essay on the Principles of Promotion
Essay on the Promotion System in Various Countries
Essay on the Efficiency Ratings to Determine Promotion

Essay # 1. Meaning of Promotion:

Promotion has its roots in Latin word ‘Promovere’ which means ‘to move forward’. Its dictionary meaning also is almost the same e.g. to elevate, to advance, to contribute the growth or prosperity of etc. Really speaking, promotion refers to advancement in rank and status leading to enhancement of emoluments.

In the words of Scott and Clothier, “A promotion is the transfer of an employee to a job which pays more money or one that carries some preferred status.”

Promotion, in the words of Dr. L.D. White, “means an appointment from a given position to a more difficult type of work and greater responsibility, accompanied by change of title and usually an increase in pay.” It is to be noted that mere increase of pay is not promotion.

Although in most cases promotion implies larger salary too, its essence is getting into a post of higher duties and responsibilities. Real promotion means rising to a higher post carrying a higher grade.

The change in duties and responsibilities form the essential characteristic of the promotion process. If a lecturer is appointed the Head of the Department in a college, it is promotion. Similarly if the Head is appointed Principal it is promotion because it has led to a change of duties and responsibilities and higher pay scale.

Promotion generally leads to the enhancement of salary but sometimes it may result in immediate financial advantage, for example, when a person getting Rs. 280 in the grade of Rs. 150-10-300 is promoted to the grade of Rs. 250-25-750.

Promotion is not Advancement:

Promotion should be distinguished from ‘advancement’ and ‘increase in compensation.’ Advancement or what is also called, “administrative promotion,” has been defined by Dr. White as a personnel administrative device which pertains “to an advance in pay by a prescribed increment within the scale of pay appropriate to a given position.”

The employee enters the service in a fixed grade and as he progresses in his service and gains more experience, he is given higher pay scale. This increment, which is annual, is called technically ‘advancement’ or ‘administrative promotion’. It differs from promotion proper inasmuch as it does not entail any change in status, duties or responsibilities.

It is merely an increase of emoluments which is usually automatic. For example, a lecturer in the past had a prescribed scale of pay which started from Rs. 2200 per month and went up to Rs. 4000. The annual increment was then of Rs. 75. When he completed a year, he earned an increment which meant his compensation had been increased or he had received an advancement of pay or administrative promotion.

But since it did not involve charge in his duties, designation and responsibilities, it did not mean called promotion proper.

Essay # 2. Types of Promotion:

Promotion can be of three types depending on – (i) length of service in the position and (ii) efficiency of the employee. Sometimes, length of service and sometimes, efficiency of the employee is counted for advancement. A good personnel system, however, is the one which gives weight to both length of service and demonstrated efficiency of the employees, for purposes of advancement.

The three types of advancements are as under:

1. The Automatic Advancement System:

Under this system, an employee earns increment of advancement on the basis of length of service. Immediately on the completion of a year’s service, he is given his annual increment prescribed in the scale of his pay.

Whereas this system of automatic advancement reduces the chances of personal jealousies because the employee is ensured of his regular increment, it turns his officer helpless and ineffective to control and supervise him.

It also makes the employee lethargic and sluggish for it is not the quality of his work but the length of service which is counted towards his advancement. This system results in the discouragement of the more industrious and conscientious employees.

2. The Conditional Advancement System:

Under this system, efficiency of the employee is made the sole criterion for advancement. Increments are advanced if the head of the organization certifies that the employee has been doing his work efficiently and there is definite improvement in his quality of work and conduct.

No doubt, this system serves the purpose of pulling up bad employees and is an incentive to more conscientious workers it is open to suspicion of corruption and nepotism. Besides it is feared that howsoever impartial the boss may be, he is likely to err as he does not cease to be a human being.

This system is very popular in small private organizations but practically finds no place in large-scale private and public administration.

3. The Semi-Automatic Advancement System:

The system steers a middle-course against the first two systems. Under it, an employee gets his regular increment on the completion of a year’s service provided he has worked conscientiously to the entire satisfaction of the head of the organization.

The head of the organization can withhold the increment if he is not satisfied regarding the quality of work and conduct of the employee. For this, definite reasons have to be given by the head to his employee.

A brief study of the above three different systems of advancement makes us conclude that the last system scores over the other two systems. It strikes the middle course and is a compromise between the two extremes. Although, even in this system, the head of the Organization can abuse his powers yet he cannot act arbitrarily because he is required to submit reasons for his action against the concerned employee.

Essay # 3. Importance of Promotion:

First, the existence of a proper promotion system is vital for attracting talented persons to public services and preventing them from migrating to private ones.

Lack of promotion system, as Prof. Arthur W. Procter says, “has a marked retroactive effect on all the processes of personnel administration. It has a discouraging effect on recruiting. It tends to deter ambitious and capable workers from entering the public service. It frequently causes the better type of worker to leave the public service for work in the field of private enterprise. It discourages workers from entering upon courses of training calculated to prepare them for increased usefulness in public employment. It makes difficult the maintenance of discipline and of goodwill and enthusiasm throughout government establishments. As a result it renders difficult the maintenance of high standards of individual and group efficiency.”

Second, a good promotion system keeps the employees interested in the job and
works as a continuously effective incentive to them.

As Mr. Procter has put it:

“To the employees promotion is of direct significance as a reward, or possible reward. Actual promotion is a reward, while the opportunity for promotion is a possible reward, something still in the future but nevertheless a matter of considerable significance.”

Besides, promotion is of direct significance to the management, inasmuch as the regards given to the employees and the incentive held out to them react in important ways on practically all of the phases of employment administration.

The actual promotions given to employees tend to create a contented stable and efficient personnel. The opportunities for promotion held out to employees have similar effect. They operate as fundamental and far reaching incentives.

They affect the success with which suitable workers are originally recruited; they determine in large part the success with which employees are retained; they affect the efforts of employees in the direction of training and self-improvement; they affect the maintenance of proper discipline; they determine in large part the goodwill and enthusiasm that prevail; and they determine in large part the standards of efficiency that are maintained.

Mayers has emphasized this point still more strongly in the words:

“…But if promotion methods fail, the fact is known to all the personnel affected, and, more surely and universally than any other defect in personnel methods, breeds discontent, diminution of incentive, and general impairment of morale. The necessity for not merely efficient but for highly accurate methods of selection is thus substantially more important in promotion than in recruitment; and from this it results that rigid or mechanical methods can be much less confidently and generally employed than in recruitment.”

Third, a proper promotion system helps in retaining the services of the most capable amongst its employees and also in giving them an incentive to improve their capacities and qualifications. In the absence of promotion, ambitious, intelligent and capable persons leave the job.

The employees remain discontented. It leads to the general impairment of morale. Dr. White has rightly pointed out, “a badly planned promotion system harms an organization not merely by pushing ahead unqualified persons but also by undermining the morale of the group.”

Fourth, the provision of promotion helps procuring of best possible incumbents for the higher positions.

Fifth, the public interest is best secured when reasonable opportunities for promotion exist for all, when really superior civil servants are enabled to move as rapidly up the promotion ladder as their merits deserve and as vacancies occur.’

It does not, however, mean that all the higher posts should be filled up by promotion. It will be an unhealthy practice if the fresh blood is not injected at the higher levels of administration and energy of the department as a whole is not stimulated.

However, denigration of seniority and extolling of merit results in unseemly rivalry in the civil service for procuring an excellent character roll. It mars their healthy relations and develops suspicion and distrust of each other adversely affecting the set goals for common welfare.

Essay # 4. Essentials of a Proper Promotion System:

In view of the great importance of promotion system it is essential that it must be based on sound lines. The influence of a good promotion system is all pervasive. It is an important phase of a career service. The failure to establish a good system of promotion is likely to give rise to a number of evil consequences. First, it would have an adverse effect on recruiting.

Capable persons would not like to enter public services. Second, the incentive to good work will be crushed thereby affecting adversely the efficiency of administration. Third, the moral standards of the offices and employees will be lowered. It will make the maintenance of discipline difficult among them.

Conditions in India as regards this important aspect of personnel administration are not satisfactory.

Before the Central Pay Commission many voices were raised by the staff representatives such as that the names and applications of certain candidates were not even forwarded by the head of the department for consideration to the Public Service Commission, or that the personal records of the employees were not satisfactorily kept.

Besides, it was also pointed out that seniority is too firmly entrenched, precluding promotions on the basis of merit and that promotion is haphazard and arbitrary often based on prejudice, favouritism or coercive influence from outside.

The important stalwarts of the political party in power approach the authorities and persuade them to promote their own Hench men. Political pressure is exerted in large measure through members of legislature.

A new device of influencing the authorities has now come into being which is highly scandalous as the women are made instrumental in managing their promotion. This is, of course, a depressing feature. Moreover certain officers get angry with some employees on very trifling matters and thereby withhold their promotions. All these factors result in unjust promotions.

The failure on the part of governments to adopt proper promotion systems is not on account of low political morality but also due to difficulties that are present in working out a proper system. As far as human nature is concerned we have to take it for granted.

However if the following conditions are adopted, a satisfactory promotion system may be evolved:

(i) Adoption of standard specifications, setting forth the duties and qualifications required for all promotions in the government service.

(ii) The classification of these positions into distinct classes, series, grades and services.

(iii) The inclusion within this classification of all the higher administrative positions except those having a political character.

(iv) The adoption, so far as possible, of the principle of recruitment from within for filling up of higher posts.

(v) The adoption of the principle of merit in determining the promotion of employees.

(vi) The provision of adequate means for determining the relative merits of employees eligible for advancement.

Essay # 5. Lines of Promotion:

Normally promotions are departmental, i.e., a vacancy in a higher post in department is usually filled from among the employees of that department even though older or more experienced officials may be awaiting their chance for promotion in another department.

Interdepartmental promotions, however, take place (e.g., in England) in three cases; i.e.:

(i) In connection with the higher posts, e.g., of the Secretaries or Heads of departments;

(ii) When no suitable candidate is available in the department to fill a particular post;

(iii) When a new department is created or an old one is expanded.

If promotions are departmental, then equality of opportunity for advancement for the civil servants as a whole is not easy to be secured because in some departments especially of an expanding nature like Social Welfare and Education, chances of promotion may be brighter than in others.

To assure equality of opportunity for promotions, scheme for pooling promotions has been advocated. Under such a scheme all the officers judged fit for promotion are entered into a central pool, from which promotions are effected as and when vacancies occur.

This scheme has, however, been criticized, firstly, on the basis that importation of outsiders creates discontent and frustration among the employees of the depa
rtment thus superseded; secondly, that officer coming from another department may not be able to efficiently perform the work of the department to which he has been newly promoted; thirdly, that it is difficult to devise a common standard to judge the competence of officers from various departments for selecting them for entry to the central pool.

Within the department, the line of promotion is determined by grades, classes and the services. The employee is promoted by grades, classes and the services. The employee is promoted from one grade to the next higher grade within the same class, e.g., a lecturer in the grade of Rs. 2200-4000 may be promoted to the next senior grade of Rs. 3000-5000 within the same class after 8 years of service.

Though inter-class promotion is not unknown, yet it involves special selection. Inter-service promotion is rare, e.g., a medical officer cannot be promoted to an engineering post.

Technical officers although can be transferred and promoted from technical service to administrative service but this is not very common, e.g., an engineer working in the Local Self-Government Department may be appointed by promotion as Secretary in the same Department.

Essay # 6. Principles of Promotion:

The need for the principles of promotion arises because of the opportunities for it are limited. Everybody entering service cannot go up the highest rung of the ladder in due course, as there are not enough of higher posts to permit the promotion for everybody.

“Hence arises the underlying and irreconcilable conflict in any promotion system. Large number of employees, normally ambitious and intent on success in their vocation or profession, and under heavy economic pressure with the passing of the years, face a limited n umber of higher positions in which vacancies occur at relatively irregular and infrequent intervals. No form of promotion system can solve this dilemma.”

A large number of civil servants, therefore, cannot get any promotion and retire from the same class in which they had started their career. The employees who are not given promotion should be made to feel that their exclusion from promotion is not arbitrary and that they cannot be promoted in terms of some recognized principles.

The morale of public services is apt to be destroyed if promotions are made capriciously without considering any principle. Hence, There arises the importance of the principles of promotion.

Generally speaking there are two main principles of promotion, namely, seniority and merit.

1. Seniority Principle:

Historically speaking, this is the oldest principle though it is still prevalent. This means that the length of service would determine the order of precedence in making promotion. According to this principle, the employee who has longer service to his credit would be entitled to the promotion.

Determination of seniority is not, however, a simple affair. A public servant of a higher grade is senior to those who are in lower grade.

Similarly an employee of a higher class though getting actually less pay is senior to an employee of a lower class getting at the time more pay.

For example, prior to the introduction of U.G.C. grades with effect from 1.1.1986. a lecturer of class II getting basic pay of Rs. 250 was senior to a lecturer of class III getting Rs. 300 as basic pay. Among the employees of the same grade, one, who has been holding a substantive post longer than his rival, is senior.

Advantages of the Seniority Principle:

(a) It is an objective test. Seniority is a matter of fact which is apt to be accepted.

(b) Senior man is more experienced. Hence more experience ordinarily should be enough qualification for promotion.

(c) It is a fair and just basis of promotion as everybody gets an opportunity for promotion in turn. It is conducive to employer-employee relationship.

(d) Interference by politicians can be avoided if this system of promotion is adopted.

(e) It keeps the morale of the employees boosted as they are sure of promotion at their turn.

(f) Better type of persons may be attracted to the jobs when they are certain of promotions.

(g) The seniority basis of promotion leads to automatic promotion. It is simple and easy to comprehend.

(h) The old employees in particular stand for this system of promotion as they have not to be lorded over by the young chaps.

(i) It is a sort of objective test. Seniority is a matter of fact which is under viable to an employee.

(j) It is more economical than the process of open market competition.

(k) The government or management will have a known man having creditable record at the helm of affairs. Hence the risk of having an unknown outsider at the top position is avoided.

The arguments in favour of this principle have been admirably summed up by Mr. Mayers as follows:

“….that the length of service of employees determines in great part their technical qualifications, that under this system, internal strife for advancement is eliminated; that those responsible for making promotions are relieved from political or other outside pressure, and the feeling that is engendered in the service that promotions are being made with an even-handed justice tends to promote good feeling and thus promote general morale. It is held, furthermore, that the greater certainty of promotion that is held out to the individual employee attracts a better class of men to the service and retains in the service many valuable employees who would otherwise leave it.”

To quote Dr. Finer, “It is automatic, and avoids the need for making invidious distinctions between one person and another, of placing the young over the old, of measuring the responsibility for the result of promotion.”

No doubt, it is fool-proof system against favouritism and undue intervention of politicians. The principle of seniority is so simple, clear and objective that there is no cause left for heart-burning or resentment among the employees. The employees naturally favour this principle of promotion.

Drawbacks of the Seniority Principle:

The principle of seniority has, however, a number of drawbacks.

First, it does not lead to the selection of the best among the eligible. There is no guarantee that the senior man will also be more competent than his junior one. An incompetent person may come at the head of competent persons and this may cause resentment among the employees thereby impairing the efficiency of administration.

G. Jeze, a French writer, says, “Promotion by grade or class or by seniority is very much open to criticism; it suppresses emulation, renders useless zeal and intelligence in the exercise of the function.”

Dr. White remarks, “consistent application of the rule of seniority up to the scale of supervisory and administrative position would in itself cause the resignation of better men and thus invite progressive deterioration in the higher grades where special competence is particularly needed.”

Second, the principle of seniority does not ensure the reaching of the higher positions by every officer and his holding it for a reasonable period. As Gladden puts it, “All members of a grade are not fit for promotion promotions are usually few and far between, an abnormal rather than a normal process; while changes in personnel are most likely to be subject to irregular fluctuations.”

Third, if seniority alone is the basis of promotion, employees would not make any effort for self-improvement.

Fourth, seniority does not necessarily coincide with age specially in a grade which is partly recruited directly and partly by promotion and so a ludicrous position may result wherein young people may come to be placed over the older.

In the words of Prof Pfiffner, “A system of promotion by seniority w
ill frequently result in raising to supervisory and directing positions persons who have “crank” complexes. Frequently advancing years, un-mellowed by the give and take of competitive life, acquire an intolerance in non-essentials which dampens the initiative of subordinates. Seniority alone will tend to fill the higher places with incompetent persons. It will discourage the ambitious and remove those incentives which develop personality, courage, self-reliance and progressive out-look.”

Fifth, the technological developments and the improvement in the working machinery necessitate the infusion of new blood in the administration. The older people lack the knowledge in consonance with the fast changing environments and are misfit for the current times.

In fact, bulk of employees who cannot hope to reach the highest positions enthusiastically support the principle of ‘promotion on seniority basis’ on the plea that it alone assures equality of opportunity.

It is difficult to pass any final judgment on the merits and demerits of the seniority principle. In its extreme form the principle of seniority is a contention for the acceptance of mere length of service as the basis for promotion.

In its mild form it means that seniority should determine the order in which the officers should be considered for promotion, but those found unfit may be passed over. This may be called seniority-cum-fitness principle. A third form of the principle is that seniority should be the determining factor in the lower range of the service, while for the higher services the merit principle may be employed.

In principle, authorities on the subject have come to mutual agreement that:

(a) In promotion to higher posts merit alone should be the consideration to the exclusion of the seniority,

(b) In promotion to middle posts, merit should be the primary and seniority a secondary consideration,

In spite of all the arguments against seniority, it is still firmly entrenched as a principle of promotion. The pull of seniority over promotions is great. It is with great difficulty that seniority is ignored in practice. This led Tomlin Commission to observe. “In regard to service generally the factor of seniority is unlikely to be undervalued.”

However, entrusting higher responsibilities to a person simply because he is senior is not justified. For higher administrative posts, seniority principle should be set at naught and merit principle be opted for. Routine kinds of jobs of lower classes may be governed by the merit principle alone. The second Pay Commission limited the promotion to those who were ‘outstanding’ very good and good.

Thus, others who got ‘fair’, ‘satisfactory’ or poor were excluded. Later the government revised the instruction to the three categories ‘fit for promotion not yet ‘fit for promotion and ‘unfit for promotion’, while writing confidential report for secretariat officers of the status of undersecretary and above.

However, it is to be indicated whether the officer concerned possessed outstanding qualities which entitled him for promotion out of turn. Evidently the number of gradation has been reduced from five to four.

2. Merit Principle:

The principle of merit is just the opposite of the principle of seniority. It means that promotion would be made on the basis of qualifications and achievements of the employee irrespective of high length of service. The most meritorious or best qualified person would be promoted.

This principle would provide due incentive to the efficient and hard-working employees and thus help boost the general morale of the employees and increase the efficiency of the department. It would favourably affect the entire personnel system. Merit is, however, a complex concept. It is rather difficult to measure it objectively.

Generally speaking, there are three methods of judging the merits of the candidates, viz.,

1. Personal Judgment of the Head of Department.

2. Promotional Examination, and

3.. Service Ratings.

1. Personal Judgment of the Head of Department:

It is a time honored system. The determination of merit for promotion may be left to the judgment of the head of the department who has been in closest contact with the employees and thus is in the best position to appraise their qualities.

Moreover he, being responsible for the discipline and morale of employees working in his department, must be directly concerned with the conferring of awards, as pronouncing of punishments. This system has the advantage of being both simple and comprehensive. But there are two serious defects in this system.

First, it can work only in small organizations. In large-scale organizations, it is rather impossible for the Head of the Department to be in closest touch with all the employees and make a personal judgment of the capacities of each one of them.

Second, this system is highly subjective and is susceptible to favouritism and extraneous considerations. As such, it may cause suspicion and resentment among the employees. In order to remove these defects of the system, Mayers has suggested the placing of promotion of employees in the hands of a board organized in each service, on which the employees are duly represented.

He observes:

“It is believed that the key to the problem lies, not in substituting mechanical methods for free discretion, but rather in so guarding the exercise of free discretion that it may be employed without fear of the injunction of political or personal favouritism. This can be accomplished by the development of machinery and organized procedure for exercising discretion in promotion as against entrusting that discretion wholly to a single administrative officer. In each service, bureau or other organization unit, there should be developed a committee of administrative officers charged with responsibility for making recommendations in respect to all selections for promotion. Provision should be made for developing and furnishing to this committee or body complete information regarding the character of work performed by, and qualifications for promotion of an employee. With all these various sources of information at its disposal, it is believed that a committee animated by a desire to act fairly could effect, in virtually every case, a recommendation consonant with the best interests of the service from the standpoint both of administrative efficiency and of the morale of the service; and that its judgment, in almost every case, would coincide with that of the administrative officer immediately concerned.”

Though Willoughby does not agree with the proposal of Mr. Mayers, yet the proposal has much to commend it. In many countries, the head of the department is assisted by a Promotional Board constituted by him from amongst officials of his own department.

Usually, this Board comprises the head of the section or branch to which the employee belongs, the head of the section or branch to which he is to be promoted, and an officer of the Establishment branch of the same department. This Board may review the progress report of any employee. Promotions are usually made on the basis of service records.

2. Promotional Examination:

Promotion may also be made on the basis of a written examination which may be an open competition, a limited competition, or merely a pass examination. In an open competition, anyone whether in the service or not, can compete for the said post. Thus outsiders also not working in the department can compete for promotional tests.

This system is justified on the ground that it widens the range of selection without prejudicing the interests of the present employees since they are apt to benefit due to their special knowledge of government work.

Moreover this system injects new bloo
d and fresh ideas into the department which will have a rejuvenating effect upon it. It is criticized on the plea that it tends to destroy the morale of the employees as it brings in outsiders who grab the higher jobs from those who actually deserve them. Such a system is, however, rare.

Limited Competition:

Under this system, examination is a limited competition among those who are already in the service. This is also known as ‘closed system’. This system is preferred by employees in the lower grades.

The Central Government follows it in regard to the recruitment to the posts of Section Officers, Assistants, Stenographers, etc. Besides examination, an equal weight is given to the confidential reports of the employees in deciding their over-all merit.

Pass examination:

The third type of promotional examination is the pass examination in which a candidate has just to pass the examination and give a proof of his minimum attainments. The employee will be promoted only if he has passed the pass examination.

This system is followed in India in junior clerical, typist, steno and other mechanical jobs. A list of qualified candidates is maintained and they are promoted on the basis of the list issued on the occurrence of a vacancy.

Criticism of the System:

It is argued that examination method eliminates favouritism, corruption and arbitrary promotions. The method is quite objective and relieves the promotion- making authorities of the troublesome responsibility of making selections. However, it is looked upon with disfavour by many scholars of personnel administration.

First, it is considered to be an interference with the ordinary official work of the candidates and is thus detrimental to public interest.

Second, examination is not a sure test of the personality of an employee. An intellectually superior person may not be a man of initiative, tact and judgment which cannot be judged by written examination.

Apart from it, memorizing or cramming things for taking an examination is extremely irksome to older employees. There is an age to learn things. After crossing that age it is difficult to memories new facts and figures.

The prevailing discontentment among the aged assistants and clerks of the Central Government who have been crossed over by the young persons, both in seniority and permanency, on account of these examinations bears testimony to this fact.

Due to these defects, examination method is not generally used for determining the merit of employees for promotion except in those cases where the number of candidates from among whom promotion is to be made is exceptionally large and where technical knowledge is an important requisite for the posts to which promotions are to be made.

The general trend is towards the adoption of a system of formalized reports which help in assessing the eligible officers on standard basis.

3. Efficiency Rating:

The other system of judging the qualifications of employees for promotion is on the basis of service records which are also sometimes called efficiency rating or service file. It may be carefully noted that maintenance of service records of employees is not by itself efficiency rating.

Such records only furnish the data on the basis of which efficiency may be evaluated. Today, the size of government organizations is so large that no officer can possibly remember about the efficiency of individual employees working in his department.

Therefore a written record of the service of the employee and his performance is maintained which furnishes a valuable assistance in judging the merits of employees at the time of promotion.

In the United States, efficiency rating has been made a very elaborate affair. The Americans have attempted to make it mechanical, exact and very objective guide for measuring the average efficiency of their civil servants. The Federal Government established in 1916 a Bureau of Efficiency for looking after the work of efficiency rating in the different departments.

The American methods of efficiency rating may be classified under three categories, namely:

(i) Production record,

(ii) Graphing rating scale, and

(iii) Personality inventory.

(i) Production Record System:

This system is comparatively simple. It applies to the works which are repetitive in character and involve relatively little judgment, such as typing, stenography, card-punch operators, etc. In these works quantitative comparison of output is easily possible.

Such rating may be combined with other factors like punctuality, industry and attendance and thereby a sufficiently comprehensive estimate of the efficiency of an employee may be procured.

But this method of production record cannot be applied to services which are of a supervisory and administrative character wherein some indirect approach involving subjective judgments by officers becomes essential.

Dr. White rightly observes, “The mere fact that a rating system is objective is not necessarily a condemnation. If the subjective judgment of the supervisor is honest (as usually is) and conforms to generally accepted standards (which may be progressively realized), it may be quite good enough for the limited use to which a formal rating should be put.”

Moreover production record alone sometimes may not be always an adequate guide by itself. An employee with a high production index may possess an irritating personality while another one with an average production record may command that personality which makes for harmony, goodwill and esprit de corps. In such a case the latter would be worth much more than the former one.

(ii) Graphic Rating Scale System:

This system is one of the early forms of efficiency ratings. The federal government in America employed it for about a decade until it was revised substantially in 1935. In it certain service traits are enumerated and on their basis efficiency of the employees is rated.

As used by Washington Government, the Graphic Scale included 15 traits or qualities which were graded into five classes, namely, excellent, very good, good, fair and satisfactory.

The fifteen traits were:

(a) Accuracy,

(b) Reliability,

(d) Speed and dispatch,

(e) Industry or diligence,

(f) Knowledge of work,

(g) Judgment,

(h) Success in winning respect and confidence,

(i) Cooperativeness,

(j) Initiative,

(k) Execution,

(l) Organizing ability,

(m) Leadership,

(n) Ability to improve and teach the employees, and

(o) Quantity of work.

The rating officer marked the sign against each trait which in his judgment denoted the degree of the employee’s efficiency. Different types of work were judged by different combinations of four or five traits so that the same scale could be used for a wide variety of jobs.

The resulting score, expressed in a numerical figure, carried out to decimal places, was worked out by clerks and was subject to review by one or more supervisors. A specimen copy of graphing rating scale is given on the next page. Although it is no longer in use, it is a characteristic example of the type.

The graphic rating scale as said above was given up in 1935 by the federal government. The course of events there-since “has been one of steady retreat from the graphic rating scale and its complicated rules of administration towards adaptability, simplicity, and the constructive uses to which efficiency ratings may be put.”

The idea of a single uniform rating scale for all federal employees has been given up and each department and agency has been authorized to establish one or more rating scales for its own employees, subject to approval by the Civil Service Commissioner.

(iii) Personality Inventory System:

The third form of efficiency rating used in America is the personality Inventory Sy
stem. This system seeks to get a record of service by different means. The best example of this system is the ‘Probst’ system devised by J.B. Probst, Chief Examiner for the city of St. Paul, in 1927.

“The essential feature of the Probst system is a comprehensive, descriptive list of traits or characteristics which, taken as a whole, are intended to include almost any possible combination of human qualities relevant to employment.”

Out of these various qualities the rating officer selects only those items which are descriptive of the characteristics of the employee. A number of special forms have been devised for different types of employees, in addition to the basic form which is adaptable to a wide variety of employment.

Essay # 7. Promotion System in Various Countries:

1. Promotion System in USA:

Americans have opted for recruitment from within which means promotion. Seniority is accorded undue weight in USA. Examinations do take place but they are assessed as not fit methods to judge the leadership qualities required by effective supervision.

In the Federal Government promotions are effected on the basis of recommendation of the supervisory staff but the system was considered faulty. The classification pattern of 1920 recommended that the efficiency rating of the employees be judged on regular basis.

There are three types of proforma in Government departments assessing efficiency rating:

(i) Production records,

(ii) Graphic rating scale, and

(iii) Personality inventory.

However, Hoover Commission found the system complicated. Hence the efficiency rating ability was substituted by ability and service record system. In 1938 civil services commission was established by an Executive Order. Now the departments were asked to see to the holding of promotional tests.

In USA, a blend of security and merit principle was followed for promotion. There is a written competitive promotional examination held in USA. Most of the civil services unions in USA, have adopted the method of promotion by seniority.

The civil services Act of 1978 provided for a gradual introduction of Merit principles system in Federal services and also at state and local levels. The act has provided for performance appraisal of public services employees by continuation of varied techniques – self appraisals, peer ratings and groups or external ratings.

2. Promotion System in Britain:

Prior to 1919, formal procedures for effecting promotion was lacking. In 1920, services were reclassified. It resulted in augmentation of promotional opportunities. Whitley Report of 1921 revolutionized the promotion system which found an abiding place in U.K.

It made a provision for:

(i) Departmental Promotion Board in every department,

(ii) Annual Reports.

The Departmental Promotion Boards are appointed by the Heads of the Departments. They have to play advisory role. Invariably, their recommendations for promotion are accepted. However, formal orders for promotion are issued by the Heads of the Departments.

The Promotion Boards look into the confidential reports and also the recommendation of the controlling officers of the concerned candidate. Seniority is the general criterion for the promotions but operations are not done solely on seniority. The candidate ignored can file an appeal.

The recommendation of the departmental promotion committee are subject to endorsement by the civil service commission. All these promotion are to be concurred by the civil service department since 1965. An annual appraisal interview is to be conducted of employees up to the rank of the Executive officer.

Since the Fulton Committee Report, promotion projects in civil services have been further improved. Since 1971 schemes for senior administrative posts have been increased for the selected few.

After the appearance of the Fulton Report, the number of young graduates entering the civil services has increased. The most prominent aspect of the Report is that now any one can reach the top position whether he was equipped with general or specialized education.

Presently, promotions, in UK are partly through centrally conducted competitions and partly by dependents. Since 1986, there are 8 grades in civil services. Automatic promotion on senior basis exists from Grade VII to Grade IV while Merit cum seniority is required for promotions Grades III and IV, for Grades I and II, merit and political consideration.

Essay # 8. Efficiency Ratings to Determine Promotion:

According to Mr. Mayers, “If any form of restriction upon the discretion of the administrative officer in making selection for promotion is to be imposed, the use of efficiency is obviously one that commends itself as most nearly approaching the result which would be obtained by honest, unrestricted exercise of such discretion. Indeed the determination of promotion by efficiency records currently maintained is an ideal theory, not a limitation on the discretion of the administrative officer in selection for promotion but is merely a guide to him. If the efficiency records are correctly designed and properly maintained, the individual whom they indicate as properly in line for promotion should be the same as the one who would be selected by the unshackled judgment of the administrative superior when the judgment is based, or as it should be, upon a full knowledge of all the facts of past performance of the several employees from among whom selection is made. The record thus serves at once as a guide to administrative officer, and as an impartial and irrefutable indication of the soundness of his choice. Needless to say, this beneficent theoretical function of the efficiency records cannot be realized fully in practice.”

Thus while efficiency rating system safeguards employees against snap judgments, prejudice, and ill-will of some supervisors; and points out to employees their weak and strong characteristics, it cannot provide an automatic basis for promotion. Human nature is too complex a phenomenon to be measured by the various rating methods.

“We may, according to the amount of cynicism in our character, “as said by Dr. Finer, “smile a little grimly at their belief that human nature is so to be analyzed, calibrated, and recorded, and that it is a practicable way of controlling it.”

The efficiency rating, howsoever detailed it may be, is subjective. The element of subjectivity enters their application at two stages.

First, the question arises as to what qualities out of the many mentioned by J.B. Probst are to be conceived specially relevant or important to the job for which promotion is to be made. No two rating officers will give the same answer to this question because of their varied idiosyncrasies.

Second, even if these qualities have been agreed upon, the judgment in respect of these traits cannot be unanimous. Thus in determining the qualities to be judged and as well as in determining the relative weight to be given to each quality, the subjective judgment of those who operate the system is bound to enter. It is a fact that human qualities or nature do not lead themselves to any kind of mechanical assessment.

Another feature that makes it difficult to rely solely upon efficiency ratings is that “of the desirability in many cases, of considering the claims to consideration of employees working in different subdivisions of an organization unit or even in different organization units or services.”

The employees of different organization units may not be under the same rating system and hence, it may become difficult to determine their relative merits.

Moreover good e
fficiency rating does not necessarily furnish convincing proof of qualification to perform the duties of another position calling for a different order of abilities, for example, a lecturer who is good in teaching may not necessarily prove good in administration as a Principal.

Other difficulties of operating the system arise from the incompetence and negligence of the rating officers. The early experience of U.S.A. was that the Heads vied with one another in giving favorable ratings to their employees for the fear of otherwise incurring unpopularity, the rating officers may not attach any great value to the system and just perform the task of rating in a formal mechanical manner.

Instead of forming their independent observation they may be influenced by the entries already made by their predecessors.

We can therefore come to the conclusion, that efficiency ratings cannot be made the controlling factor in determining promotion. They cannot be made to work as unerring hands of fate—”the moving finger writes on—and having written moves on.”—They are useful as aids to the judgment of the promoting authority.

The best provision for handling promotions under normal circumstances “consists in a procedure by which all eligible are considered on the basis of experience and capacity to perform new duties,” and these qualifications should be determined “in part by previous record, in part or another, especially for the lower grade.