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[PDF] Theories on the Nature of State | Essay | Theories | Political Science

Here is a compilation of essays on the ‘Nature of State’ for class 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Nature of State’ especially written for school and college students.

Theories on the Nature of State

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Organic Theory
Essay on Sir Herbert Spencer’s Theory
Essay on the Idealist Theory
Essay on the Marxician Theory

Essay # 1. The Organic Theory:

The nature of the state is to be gleaned from the organic theory which compares the state to a biological organism. The state is likened with a living being. The relation between the state and the individuals is one of the biological organism and its different cells.

The state is not a composition of its people but an organism having parts and organs which are related to one another as the different organs of an animal arc related to one another.

The earliest political thinker who propounded the theory compared the state to “A” and the individuals to “a” and he called the state as an individual magnified. According to Plato, the rulers stood for wisdom, warriors represented courage, and the working class symbolised appetite.

The other Greek philosopher who believed in this organic theory was Aristotle who drew an analogy between the state and the human body. Among the Roman thinkers was Cicero who shared the view of organism as a nature of the state. He found a parallelism between the head of the state and the spirit that rules the body.

The English thinker Thomas Hobbes compared the state to a huge monster called the Leviathan. This artificial being was of great strength and stature. Hobbes went to the extent of asserting that like human beings suffering from plague, fever and injury, the Leviathanis also subject to similar ailments.

The French philosopher Rousseau drew a comparison between the body-politic and human body. As the state has got legislative power, the human body has “will”. The German thinker J. K. Bluntschli considered the state as a live mechanism.

The state has both life and spirit. The state is not a mere building to have only bricks and mortars. It is something more. Similarly, the state has its own identity which is independent of the individuals comprising it.

Criticism of the Organic Theory:

The comparison of the state to a living organism is erroneous and open to serious objections.

The Organic Theory as a nature of the state is attacked on the following grounds:

First, the theory gives rise to the assumption that the individuals who comprise the state are completely subordinated to the state in the same way as the cells of the body for their existence solely depend on the organism as if the individuals if separated from the state will have no existence. But the individuals in the state are independent of it and may survive even by separation from the state. So this theory is a misleading one.

Secondly, by giving no importance to the individuals as independent or self-conscious units this theory runs counter to democracy and liberty.

Thirdly, the theory erroneously gives the impression that the state is a biological unit. In reality the unity in the state is social and psychological.

Fourthly, the theory – by considering the state as one of biological nature – demolishes the social contract theory, according to which the state is a human institution. Thus the organic theory has completely wiped away the human aspect of the state.

We may safely conclude with the words of J. W. Garner:

“The Organismic Theory of the state is neither a satisfactory explanation of the nature of the state nor a trustworthy guide to state activity.”

Value of the Organic Theory:

According to R. G. Gettell, the summum bonum of this theory is that it is the antidote to the eighteenth century social contract theory which considers the state as an artificial creation of man.

Essay # 2. Sir Herbert Spencer’s Theory:

We have just analysed the concept of the organic theory as handed down to us from the different political scientists, right from Plato to J. K. Bluntschli. But none gave a detailed analysis of the affinity between the state and the living organism. This was done for the first time by Sir Herbert Spencer.

He is the most important political thinker as the exponent of the organic theory of the state. He drew close similarities between the state and animal organism. This merits a detailed study:

I. The process of growth of the state is like that of an organism. Both start from simplicity to complexity. A foetus in the womb of the mother is just a lump of flesh. It develops into a baby with all organs of human being. It’s inside story comes to an end when the mother gives birth to the baby.

Same is the case with the state. In the beginning, the state was a primitive and crude institution which gradually grew into the modern complex organisation. Both the state and the human body have internal and external growth by adjustment and cooperation from outside.

II. Like an organism, the state has also three main systems, namely a sustaining system, a distributor system and a regulating system. Like the sustaining system of an organism – which is in actuality the digestive system by which the body sustains its continuity by the process of digestion of food – the state has also its sustaining system by the process of agriculture and industries. Like the circulating system – by which blood is circulated throughout the body – there is a corresponding circulating system in the state by the process of transport and communication.

If the nerves and brains are the regulating system of the animal-body, the government and the army and the police are the regulating system of the state. Thus there is a close affinity between the organism and the state.

III. While the organism is composed of cells, the state is composed of the individuals. In both cases the whole depends upon the component units.

IV. The well-being of the organism depends on the condition of the cells composing the body. So also the health of the state depends on the health of the different cells. If the cells are diseased, the body is bound to be diseased. Similarly, if the citizens are not well-disciplined, intelligent and law-abiding, the state cannot progress.

V. Like the cells of any organism are subject to the process of decay and death, so also the individuals in the state attain old age and die. When a cell dies, a new cell comes in its place. The same is the case in the case of the old and dead individuals, after which new individuals are born to take their place.

It is not that the organism and the state are similar or alike in all respects. There are some points of difference between the two.

Even Herbert Spencer admits of these d
issimilarities as mentioned below:

(i) While organism is concrete, the state is discrete. By drawing an analogy between organism and the state one is led to believe that – like the cells are closely interconnected with the organism – the individuals are also so with regard to the state. It is common knowledge that the individuals in the state are independent of each other and they are never cobbled together to form a single whole.

(ii) In, the organism it is the brain and nerve that singularly control all the parts. But there is no central brain or nerve to control the affairs of the state. In the state every individual has his own independent consciousness and thinking.

(iii) While the organism has its birth, growth, decay and death, this is not the case with the state. A state is permanent and knows no death.

(iv) The organism and its cells are inter-dependent. A cell will die without the organ. The individuals, on the other hand, will not die if they leave the state. They can live in some other state.

(v) For its growth the organism need not exert its own will. It grows as a law of nature. But the state cannot grow without its own volition. Since the state is a human institution it can grow only by human will and action.

(vi) The controlling power of the organism over its cells goes on increasing with the growth of the organism. But the controlling power goes on the reverse gear with the growth of the state. It ceases more and more controlling power as the state grows from stage to stage.

(vii) The origin of an organism is by union of male and female beings. This is never the case with the state.

Criticism of the Theory:

The comparison of the state to a living organism is erroneous and open to serious objections.

The Organic Theory as a nature of the state is attacked on the following grounds:

Secondly, by giving no importance to the individuals as independent or self-conscious units this theory runs counter to democracy and liberty.

Thirdly, the theory erroneously gives the impression that the state is a biological unit. In reality the unity in the state is social and psychological.

Lastly, by making the state all-in-all and by relegating the individuals to insignificance, this theory indirectly makes the state rather totalitarian and leads to the idea of the establishment of a totalitarian state like Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany. So the theory is a dangerous one. Thus we have to discard the organic theory as totally unacceptable. We may safely conclude with the words of J. W. Garner: “The Organismic Theory of the state is neither a satisfactory explanation of the nature of the state nor a trustworthy guide to state activity.”

Value of the Theory:

Even the darkest cloud has its silver lining. So we find some utility of the organic theory. It underlines the importance of the unity of the state and at the same time insists on the interdependence of its individuals. Again, it emphasises the evolutionary nature of the state by stressing upon the growth and changes in the state. According to R. G. Gettell, the summum bonum of this theory is that it is the antidote to the eighteenth century social contract theory which considers the state as an artificial creation of man.

Essay # 3. The Idealist Theory:

Origin of the Idealist Theory:

The Idealist Theory came into prominence through the writings of the German philosophers Friedrich Hegel and Immanuel Kant.

The English philosophers like Thomas Hill Green and Bernard Bosanquet developed this theory which is also known as the Absolute Theory, Philosophical Theory, Metaphysical Theory and Mystical Theory.

But the most common nomenclature of this theory is the Idealist Theory because its central theme is to idealize and glorify the state. It is called the absolute theory since it encourages an omnipotent or totalitarian state where the individual has no voice.

The philosophical nature of the theory is responsible to call it the philosophical theory. The naming metaphysical and mystical theory is due to the profusion of abstract and unrealistic approach.

Genesis of the Idealist Theory:

The idealist theory proceeds with the assumption that the state is a moral institution or an ethical organism which has a will and personality of its own. The state is the embodiment of God on earth and the state progresses from strength to strength as if it is the march of God in history.

Since the laws emanate from the state, these should be taken as moral perfection of the state. So the laws are to be considered as “true moral consciousness”. Obedience to the state will be the obedience of the best self of man.

The moral personality of man will grow in external actions by unqualified support to the state. Man’s right and liberty can exist only if there is the state. In a word, for the fullest expression of the personality of the individual the most indispensable thing is the state. The state alone can provide his “station” and “duty” in the state.

According to the idealists, an individual cannot have rights, he will have only duties, because he will have no place outside the society which is personified by the state. So it is by unflinching obedience of the laws of the state that the individual can attain his moral perfection. The state is the end and the individual is only a means. The state stands for “social morality” of all its individuals.

Thus the state is an institution having a social and moral organism. It is for the state to decide what is moral and what is immoral and as such the state alone is competent to tie the individuals to the chariot-wheels of its own moral code of conduct. The state is absolute, infallible and the symbol of the national will.

The state is omnipotent and omnicompetent and has the authority which is divine in character. The state is equal to God. So the God-state cannot do any wrong. The state is the embodiment of the society, social consciousness and God.

Chief Exponents of the Idealist Theory:

As the nature of the state, the idealist theory is more important than the organic theory. Tins theory was in vogue all over the ages. It is as old as the days of ancient Greece of the time of Plato. According to Plato, the state stood for the society and through the state alone an individual is capable of realising the highest ideal.

Aristotle too glorified the state which, being a self-sufficient institution, was capable of providing highest good to the individual. The state is a perpetual organisation and it continues for the sake of good life. For Aristotle, the state is not a more political and economic institution but a moral association where man strives for a moral life. Man cannot live only by food, cloth’s and shelter.

He seeks also a life of reason and goodness through the state. In modern age, the the
ory found staunch supporters in Germany and England. Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Hegel, Neitzsche, Bernhardt and Treitschke of Germany and Thomas Green, Bernard Bosanquet and Francis Herbert Bradley of England were the chief exponents of the idealist theory.

According to Kant, who got his inspirations from C. Montesquieue and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the state is infallible and omnipotent. The individual has no option but to obey the will of the state. Liberty of the individuals must be equated to the obedience of the laws of the state.

The other German thinker Hegel glorified and deified the state which stood for the collective will of all. Liberty of the individual lay in the obedience of all the laws of the slate which has a personality of its own with an independent frame of mind.

It will be a moral sin to disobey the state. Hegel was the champion of the establishment of totalitarian state which alone was capable of tightening its utmost control over the individuals. The other political thinkers who are associated with the idealist theory are Neitzsche, John Bernhardt and Treitschke who elevated the state to an extreme height.

They tightened the screw upon the individuals with the words- “The state is power, fall down and worship it”.

The pith and substance of the idealist theory are Neitzsche, John Bernhardt and Treitschke who elevated the state to an extreme height.

They tightened the screw upon the individuals with the words- “The state is power, fall down and worship it”.

The pith and substance of the idealist theory is best couched in the words of Hegel- “The state is an entity over and above the people who compose it with a real will and personality of its own.”

In England the most shining advocates of this theory were Thomas Hill Green and Bernard Bosanquet. The English idealists differed from their German counterparts by slackening the rigour of their German school. The extreme idealism of Kant and Hegel were subdued in the hands of Green and Bosanquet by putting certain limitation on the authority of the state.

They did not admit that the state is omnipotent and absolute transcending and including the personalities of the individuals. Bradley was the other English idealist who did not accept the extreme form of idealism as propounded by the German philosophers.

Criticisms of the Idealist Theory:

The idealist theory as the nature of the state cannot be accepted.

The following are the jarring criticisms, to which the theory is subjected:

First, the theory is devoid of reality and is purely an abstract and metaphysical one. This notion, which has no nexus to the realities of life is simply to be ignored.

According to William James, it is “a rationalistic philosophy that indeed may call itself religious, but that keeps out all definite touch with concrete facts, joys and sorrows”.

Secondly, idealising the state is a tactic of conservatism. The theorist of this doctrine idealised the stark realities. So we find Aristotle idealising slavery, Kant and Hegel glorifying war and brute force and Green idealising private property and so on.

Thirdly, the idealist theory obliterates the distinction between the state and the government by confusing the functions of the government with those of the state. The stat and the government might be the same in ancient Greek city-states which were very small. But modern states are very wide and the government is a microscopic unit of it. In modern states the government does not include the population.

Fourthly, the theory wrongly considers the state as a person. No doubt, the state consists of a vast number of persons. It does not mean that the state itself is a person. It is the same mistake as confusing the college with the students or confusing the footpath with the pedestrians.

Fifthly, the theory makes the mistake of considering the individuals existing for the well-being of the state, while the correct position is that the state exists for the well-being of the individuals.

Sixthly, the theory is opposed to democracy and liberty and contains the portent of totalitarianism. The total subjugation of the individuals’ independent personality and will and by exceedingly raising the status of the state as infallible, and all-pervasive there is the danger of making the state as dictatorial and totalitarian as the Fascist regime in Italy and the Nazi regime in Germany.

Value of the Idealist Theory:

The following are some of the cardinal plus points of the idealist theory:

In the first place, the theory is a happy blending of politics and ethics. The institution of the state stands on moral legs. It corrects the defects inherent in the Machiavellian conception of the state, according to which the state has nothing to do with morality and it must be as clever as the fox.

It is common knowledge that Machiavellianism is a discarded theory. On the other hand, there is a greater advantage in making the state based on or at least consistent with morality. The idealistic theory goes to support Mahatma Gandhi’s saying- “Politics divorced from ethics is a farce.”

In the second place, the theory is good because it emphasises the need of cohesion between different individuals and also different associations as if they are members of the same whole under the supervision of the state. It brings the lesson of obedience and encourages the individuals to cultivate the habit of “live and let others live” which is essential in a state.

In the third place, the theory underlines the fact that the state is the source of all laws and its violation will compel the state to take to a tougher line like using force against the law-breakers. So this theory is disciplinary in nature.

Lastly, the theory keeps before it some ideal which may not exist in reality but must be the path-finders for all states. All ideas are dynamic and need not be static. What is important is that without some ideal we may not attain the fruits of civilisation.

Essay # 4. Marxician Theory:

The Marxists give us a quite different picture about the nature of the state. The Marxists think that the state has been created to protect the interest of the most dominant class that controls over the means of production. It has not been created for maintaining law and order in the society as it is the common belief about the nature of the state.

It is created with the class’ struggle and it will vanish away with the class struggle.

To say in the words of Fredrich Engels:

“The state is, as a rule, the state of the most powerful, economically dominant class which, through the medium of the state, becomes also the politically dominant class and thus acquires new means of holding down and exploiting the oppressed class. Thus the state of antiquity was above all the state of slave-owners for the purpose of holding down the slaves, as the feudal state was the organ of the nobility for holding down the peasants, serfs and bondsmen, and the modern representative state is the instrument of exploitation of wage labour bycapital.”

Thus the state is an organisation of the possessing class to protect itself from the non-possessing class.

So V. G. Afanasyev wrote in his book Marxist Philosophy- “The state is a product of class society. It arose with the appearance of classes and it will vanish, wither away, with the disappearance of the classes.” Thus the state is a condition of class exploitation.

Unlike the conventional nature of the state, the Marxician theory is that the state is an instrument of a particular class and it exists for the be
nefit of only a section of the society.

The second nature of the state is that it is not natural but a creation of man, i.e., a human institution.

The third nature of the state is that force is the basis of the state.

The fourth character of the state is that it is a part of the superstructure that grows upon the productive forces.

The fifth habit of the state is that the laws of the state are the wills of the dominant class in the society to protect their own interest against the oppressed ones.

Last but not the least, the institutions of the state function like a machine to crush and repress the exploited lot.

In his book The Marxist Theory of the Slate, H. M. Chang considers the following as the basic elements in the nature of the state:

(i) The state makes a division of its members by way of territories;

(ii) Force is the essence of the state;

(iii) The state has a right of imposing taxes and sign contracts for public debt;

(iv) The officialdom of the state consists of an elite privileged class.

The Communist Manifesto give, out the following as the nature of the state:

(i) The state is the executive of the bourgeois class;

(ii) The state is the instrument of oppression and exploitation by the dominant class over the other class, the dominant class being one which controls the means of production;

(iv) The state is a superstructure created by the possessing class;

(v) The state is transitory. It is born with the class and it will die with the class.

Criticism of the Marxician Theory of the Nature of State:

It is not possible to accept the theory that state represents the oppression of the most dominant class that holds control of the means of production. As a matter of fact, the state is a symbol of the welfare of the entire people.

It is a harsh proposal that the state is concerned with the protection of the interest of the dominant class, far less that it will die with the death of the dominant class. The state is permanent, the context between the classes, if any, must be very temporary. Thus the Marxists have painted a narrow and shallow image of the state. This view is unreasonable and so unacceptable.

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[PDF] Atomic Weapons and International Politics | Hindi | Essay

Here is an essay on the ‘Impact of Atomic Weapons on International Politics’ especially written for school and college students in Hindi language.

6 अगस्त, 1945 को जब अमरीकी बमवर्षक बी-29 ने जापान के हिरोशिमा पर अणु बम का विस्फोट किया था, उसी दिन मानव जाति मानो एक चौराहे पर आकर खड़ी हो गयी थी । अणु बम से आगे आज हाइड्रोजन बम, नाइट्रोजन बम, मेगाटन अन्तर महाद्वीपीय प्रक्षेपास्त्र, अन्तरिक्ष यान, अन्तरिक्ष यात्रा, भू-उपग्रह, चन्द्र पर विजय आदि कई वैज्ञानिक अकल्पनीय उपलब्धि मानव जाति ने प्राप्त कर ली है ।

आज हमारी धरती पर चन्द्रलोक से लौटे कई अन्तरिक्ष यात्री हैं । यह केवल तकनीकी परिवर्तन मात्र नहीं है; इसके राजनीतिक, सामाजिक, अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय और व्यापक मानवीय प्रभाव हैं । आज मानव जाति असीम शक्ति की स्वामिनी बन गयी है ।

1954 में ओसलो में नोबल शान्ति पुरस्कार प्राप्त करते समय एल्बर्ट श्वीत्जर ने कहा था- ”आज का मानव महामानव हो गया है, क्योंकि उसने सृष्टि की मूल शक्ति पर अधिकार पा लिया है परन्तु आज भी उसका मन और मस्तिष्क आदम का ही है । इस अथाह शक्ति को नियन्त्रित करके मानव विकास के लिए उपयोग में लाने के लिए जिस चरम संयम की आवश्यकता है, उसका उसमें नितान्त अभाव है ।” आणविक शस्त्रों के आविष्कार ने विश्व राजनीति को बहुत अधिक प्रभावित किया है ।

इनके प्रभावों की चर्चा निम्नलिखित ढंग से की जा सकती है:

1. परम्परागत शक्तिशाली राज्यों को दुर्वल बनाना:

परमाणु युद्ध से शक्तिशाली राष्ट्रों की क्षमता पर सबसे गहरा प्रभाव पड़ा है । विमान युद्ध द्वितीय विश्व-युद्ध तक भी युद्धरत राष्ट्र की पराजय का कोई मुख्य कारण नहीं बना था, यद्यपि यह एक बड़ा सहायक कारण निश्चय ही बन चुका था ।

लेकिन आज का परमाणु युद्ध सीधी कार्यवाही द्वारा प्रतिरक्षा के दूसरे साधनों का उपयोग किये बिना एक पक्ष को हरा देने में पूरी तरह समर्थ है । इससे उन राज्यों की अभेद्यता का भी अन्त हो गया है जो परम्परागत रूप से बड़े शक्तिशाली रहे हैं ।

2. युद्ध-कार्य विध्वंस का एक प्रक्रम बन गया है:

बी.एच. लिड्‌सहार्ट ने लिखा है, युद्ध कार्य पहले सिर्फ लड़ाई था पर अब विध्वंस का एक प्रक्रम बन गया है । पहले वायु युद्ध को सर्वथा नये ढंग की चीज समझा जाता था, युद्ध में आम जनता को उलझाने की बात सर्वथा कल्पनातीत समझी जाती थी पर परमाणु अस्त्रों की सर्वनाशकता ने इसकी सम्भावना को अनिवार्य बना दिया है । आज भूमण्डल का कोई भी भाग अभेद्य नहीं माना जा सकता ।

3. प्रत्येक राष्ट्र दूसरे राष्ट्र की ‘अनुमति’ से ही जीवित हैं:

बोल्डिंग के अनुसार संचार प्रणाली में सुधार के कारण संसार बहुत सिकुड़-सा गया है इसलिए विश्व का हर हिस्सा परमाणु युद्ध के लिए खुला हुआ है । बोल्डिंग ने बताया कि राष्ट्रों के प्रत्येक युगल (Blocs) में दोनों राष्ट्र एक-दूसरे का विनाश करने में समर्थ हैं, चाहे वे एक-दूसरे से कितनी ही दूरी पर हों ।

पर हर राष्ट्र स्वयं भी दूसरे राष्ट्र के हमले से अरक्षित है और नष्ट हो सकता है । दूसरे शब्दों में, प्रत्येक राष्ट्र किसी भी अन्य राष्ट्र को नष्ट कर सकता है और वह अपना स्वयं का नाश भी नहीं रोक सकता । ऐसी स्थिति में प्रत्येक राष्ट्र दूसरे राष्ट्र की ‘अनुमति’ से ही जीवित है ।

4. आणविक शस्त्रों से अमरीका और सोवियत संघ में फूट पड़ना:

आणविक शस्त्रों के आविष्कार से सोवियत संघ और संयुक्त राज्य अमरीका में परस्पर फूट और वैमनस्य में वृद्धि हुई । अमरीका और सोवियत संघ द्वितीय विश्व-युद्ध के दौरान एक-दूसरे के मित्र थे, किन्तु अमरीका ने अणु बम के आविष्कार को सोवियत संघ से सर्वथा गुप्त रखा ।

1945 में जब अमरीका ने हिरोशिमा में परमाणु नरमेध किया था तब उसका मूल कारण शत्रुमय नहीं, बल्कि विजय और अन्वेषण का दर्प तथा अहंकार था । तब सोवियत संघ या किसी और के पास परमाणु
शक्ति थी ही नहीं ।

स्टालिन ने अमरीका द्वारा अणु बम के रहस्य को सोवियत संघ से गुप्त रखने की बात को गम्भीर विश्वासघात माना । परिणामस्वरूप सोवियत संघ और अमरीका में परस्पर तनाव उत्पन्न हो गया और दोनों ही देश गुप्त रूप से वैज्ञानिक अस्त्र-शस्त्र के आविष्कार की होड़ में संलग्न हो गये ।

5. आणविक शस्त्रों का भय युद्ध प्रतिरोधक शक्ति के रूप में:

जे.डब्ल्यू. बर्टन के अनुसार दोनों महाशक्तियों के पास प्रचुर मात्रा में आणविक हथियार मौजूद हैं जिससे वे चाहें तो एक-दूसरे का विनाश कर सकते हैं । वर्तमान विश्व राजनीति में इस स्थिति को ‘आतंक का सन्तुलन’ (Balance of Terror) कहा जा सकता है और यही ‘आतंक का सन्तुलन’ महाशक्तियों को ‘युद्ध’ शुरू न करने के लिए बाध्य करता है ।

यदि किसी घटना को लेकर संघर्ष उत्पन्न भी हो जाये तो दोनों ही महाशक्तियां आणविक खतरे से परिचित होने के कारण युद्ध के बजाय कूटनीतिक रणनीति (Strategic Calculations) का सहारा लेना श्रेयस्कर समझती हैं । शीत-युद्ध की राजनीति के मार्फत अधिकांश देश किसी-न-किसी गुट से सम्बद्ध हैं अत: महत्वपूर्ण विश्व विवाद आणविक युद्ध के आसन्न खतरों से रोके जा सकते हैं ।

6. आणविक शस्त्रों के फलस्वरूप सामूहिक सुरक्षा व्यवस्थाओं का उदय:

आणविक आयुधों से असुरक्षा और आतंक इतना अधिक बढ़ा कि महाशक्तियों ने सुरक्षा हेतु सामूहिक सुरक्षा व्यवस्थाओं- नाटो, वारसा पैक्ट आदि का निर्माण किया । अमरीका नाटो को आधुनिक आणविक हथियारों से सुसज्जित करने में लगा रहा तो सोवियत संघ वारसा पैक्ट को आणविक हथियारों से सम्पन्न करता रहा ।

7. शान्ति-अनुसन्धान और शान्तिपूर्ण सह-अस्तित्व के लिए आन्दोलन:

आणविक शस्त्रों की प्रलयंकारी शक्ति और अणु युद्ध से मानव सभ्यता के विनाश के भय ने शान्तिपूर्ण सह-अस्तित्व की धारणा को आज पहले से कहीं अधिक व्यावहारिक बना दिया है । यूरोपीय देशों की राजधानियों में परमाणु शस्त्र के विरोध में होने वाले प्रदर्शनों में लोगों का बड़ी संख्या में शामिल होना यह साबित करता है कि अणु युद्ध के खतरों के प्रति यूरोपवासी सजग हो गये हैं ।

यूरोपीय देशों में इस प्रकार के प्रदर्शन अपनी सानी नहीं रखते । लन्दन, रोम, ब्रुसेल्स में पांच लाख से भी अधिक लोगों के जुलूस की एक ही मांग थी- ”हमें विध्वंस की ओर न ले जाओ, पश्चिमी यूरोप में परमाणु अस्त्रों का प्रसार रोको ।”

हाल ही में कई देशों में परमाणु शस्त्रों के बारे में जो जनमत संग्रह हुए उनसे पता चलता है कि जनसाधारण की सोच में कितना बड़ा अन्तर आया है । नाटो जिन पांच देशों में पर्शिंग-5 प्रक्षेपास्त्र स्थापित करना चाहता था वहां के अधिकांश लोग या तो प्रक्षेपास्त्र के खिलाफ थे या उनकी जरूरत के बारे में मन में सन्देह पालते थे ।

नाटो के नीति-निर्धारकों के लिए यह एक चिन्ताजनक बात थी कि वे जिन देशों – ब्रिटेन, इटली, पश्चिमी जर्मनी, हॉलैण्ड और बेल्जियम को प्रक्षेपास्त्रों का गढ़ बनाना चाहते थे उन्हीं देशों के लोग उनकी नीति को चुनौती दे रहे थे ।

आजकल यूरोप के देशों में एक-पक्षीय परमाणु नि:शस्त्रीकरण के समर्थकों की संख्या बढ़ रही है । पेरिस में हुए एक प्रदर्शन में भाग लेने वालों की मांग थी कि परमाणु बमों पर रोक लगा दी जाये और सुरक्षा के लिए लगाये जाने वाले धन का रुख मोड़कर उसे तीसरी दुनिया की मदद के लिए खर्च किया जाये ।

8. मानव मात्र के अस्तित्व की समस्या:

मानव जाति के सम्मुख पहले भी संकट आये थे, परन्तु आज समस्या शान्ति स्थापित करने की नहीं है वरन् मानव मात्र के अस्तित्व की है । टॉयनबी के शब्दों में, ”स्थिति की विकटता अकल्पनीय है ।” परमाणु अस्त्रों के कारण युद्ध का अर्थ ही महाविनाश हो गया है ।

चर्चिल ने उचित ही कहा था- ”क्या विडम्बना है कि मानव मात्र चरम विकास की
उस स्थिति में पहुंच गया है जहां हमारी सुरक्षा, आणविक शक्ति की भयंकरता के कारण ही सुरक्षित रहेगी, और मानव जाति का अस्तित्व महाविनाश की सम्भावना के भय पर ही टिका रहेगा ।”

इससे पहले कई संकटों को मानव जाति ने पार किया है पर इतिहास इसका साक्षी है कि मानव जाति को जीवित और स्वतन्त्र रहने के लिए अधिकाधिक मूल्य चुकाना पड़ा है । आज केवल शोषण और रक्तपात से मुक्त, दु:ख-दारिद्रय से मुक्त, आत्मा और विश्वास की मुक्ति ही नहीं प्राप्त करनी है, वरन् अस्तित्व और विनाश के निरन्तर भय से मुक्ति प्राप्त करनी है ।

लिपमैन ने इसी को इस प्रकार व्यक्त किया है कि अणु युग में असफलता और असमर्थता का भाव और भी उग्र हो उठा है, न हम युद्ध को समाप्त कर सकते हैं, न आज युद्धों को संचालित करने की पूरी क्षमता हममें है और विजयी होकर पुनर्निर्माण का तो प्रश्न ही नहीं है ।

निराशा की व्याप्त भावना का कारण यह है कि अणुशक्ति पर हम नियन्त्रण न पा सके तो आगामी कल महाविनाश का कल होगा, यह वैज्ञानिक आविष्कार मानव मात्र की चरम तर्क शक्ति, बुद्धि, प्रज्ञा और चिन्तन का प्रतीक है परन्तु उस शक्ति का उपयोग अपने ही विनाश के लिए करके मानव जाति सबसे बड़ी भूल कर रही है ।

राजनीतिज्ञ, विचारक, अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय सम्बन्धों के विवेचक सभी इस संकट के आभास से भयभीत हैं तथा नियति मानो सारी मानव जाति को उस ओर ले जा रही है जहां वह जाना नहीं चाहती । अणु शक्ति पर नियन्त्रण पाने के लिए प्राय: विचार-विमर्श होता रहता है और अणु युग के अनुकूल राजनीतिक नीतियां अपनाने पर विशेष बल दिया जाता है ।

पामर व पर्किन्स ने आणविक युग के अनुकूल विदेश नीति अपनाने के लिए निम्नलिखित सुझाव दिये हैं:

i. युद्ध का अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय राजनीति से पूर्ण उन्मूलन,

ii. सशक्त विश्व सरकार रूपी अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय संघ का गठन,

iii. सामान्य नि:शस्त्रीकरण,

iv. परमाणु शक्ति पर समुचित नियन्त्रण,

v. समस्त राष्ट्रों द्वारा कभी भी परमाणु अस्त्रों के प्रयोग न करने की वचनबद्धता,

vi. व्यापक नर-संहार करने वाले शस्त्रों के परीक्षणों पर पूर्ण निषेध,

vii. जिन देशों के पास भी हों विशेषकर रूस और संयुक्त राज्य अमरीका द्वारा समस्त अणु आयुधों का समूल विनाश,

viii. आणविक शस्त्रों के प्रसार को निरोध करने वाले समझौते,

ix. आणविक शक्ति से सम्पन्न किसी राष्ट्र द्वारा आक्रमण किये जाने पर राष्ट्रों को सुरक्षा प्रदान करने की व्यवस्था ।

परन्तु अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय राजनीति का यथार्थवादी विचारक जानता है कि इनमें से एक भी सुझाव राष्ट्रों को मान्य नहीं है । अत: अणु शक्ति पर नियन्त्रण आज की अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय राजनीति की मूल समस्या है ।

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Here is a term paper on ‘Coordination’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Coordination’ especially written for school and college students.

Term Paper on Coordination

Term Paper Contents:

Term Paper on the Meaning of Coordination
Term Paper on the Need for Coordination
Term Paper on the Types of Coordination
Term Paper on the Principles of Coordination
Term Paper on the Methods of Coordination
Term Paper on the Hindrances of Coordination

Term Paper # 1. Meaning of Coordination:

Negatively, coordination means the removal of conflicts and over-lapping in administration; positively, it means to secure co-operation and teamwork among the numerous employees of an organization.

Some of the definitions of coordination are given below:

Coordination is “the orderly synchronization of efforts to provide the proper amount, timing and directing of execution resulting in harmonious and unified actions to a stated objective.” — Newman’

“Coordination is the adjustment of the parts to each other and of the movement and operation of parts in time so that each can make its maximum contribution to the product of the whole.” — Terry

“Coordination is a process causing disjunction elements to a concentration on a complex of forces and influence which cause the mutually independent elements to act together.”— L.D. White’

“Coordination is the integration of the several parts into an orderly whole to achieve the purpose of the undertaking.” Charlesworth’

“Coordination is the effort to ensure the smooth interplay of the functions and forces of all the different components and parts of an organisation to the end that its purposes will be realized with a minimum of friction and a maximum of collaborative effectiveness”. — Ordway Tead

According to Mary Follelt, Coordination is the “reciprocal relating of all factors in a situation” which she amplifies as “you cannot envisage the process accurately by thinking of A adjusting himself to B and C and to D. A adjusts himself to B and also to a B influenced by C and to a B influenced by D and to a B influenced by A himself and so on and so on. This sort of reciprocal relating, this interpretation of every part by every other part, and again by every other part as it has been permeated by all should be a goal of all attempts at coordination.”

In the words of Seckler-Hudson, Coordination is “the all important duty of inter-relating the various parts of the work.”

According to Mooney, “Coordination is the first principle of organization and includes within itself all other principles which are subordinate to it and through which it operates.”

Dimock and Dimock state that Coordination is placing the many aspects of an enterprise in proper position relative to each other and to the programme of which they are a part; it is harmoniously combining agents and functions towards the achievement of a desired goal.’

According to Dalton, “Coordination is the process whereby an executive develops an orderly pattern of group effort among his subordinates and secures unity of action as the pursuit of common purpose.”

On the basis of above definitions, the following features of co-ordination may be noted:

(i) Coordination is applied on group-efforts not individual efforts. It involves the patterning of group efforts because an individual who is working in isolation does not affect anyone’s functioning and no need of coordination arises.

(ii) Coordination is a continuous and dynamic process. It is a continuing problem which has no final or once-for-all solution.

(iii) Coordination emphasizes unity of efforts which is the heart of coordination process. It makes the individual efforts integrated with the total process.

(iv) Coordination is executive responsibility.

(v) Coordination has a common purpose of getting organisational objectives achieved.

In general, coordination means making all parts of an organization work harmoniously, without conflicts and without cross-purposes, to achieve the defined goal. It may, however, be mentioned that coordination is a means and not an end in itself. In the words of Newman, “It is not a separate activity but a condition that should permeate all phases of administration.”

Term Paper # 2. Need for Coordination:

Coordination is a first principle of organization. It is needed not only to secure team work and co-operation but also to prevent conflicts that may arise in the working of an organization.

Such conflicts arise due to:

(i) Ignorance of the employees or units of each other’s activities;

(ii) A tendency among men in charge of particular functions and activities to regard their own desk as all-important unmindful of the needs of others and make encroachments on the latter’s sphere of activities; and

(iii) A growing tendency towards empire-building or greed for power among different units of an organization.

Coordination is thus essential for organisational efficiency.

It may take two forms:

(a) Coordination of various activities and

(b) Coordination of individuals.

Term Paper # 3. Types of Coordination:

Coordination can be of two types:

(i) Internal or Functional which is concerned with the coordination of the activities of individuals working in an organization; and

(ii) External or Structural which is concerned with coordinating the activities of different organisational units.

Both types of coordination are effected horizontally and perpendicularly. Horizontally, coordination establishes inter-relation between one employee and another, between one section and another, between one branch and another, between one division and another and between one department and another.

Perpendicularly, coordination is established between one employee and his officer, between officer and his next superior and so on and between one section and a branch, between a branch and a division and so on.

In the words of Dr. Appleby Hierarchy “functions both perpendicularly and horizontally. The horizontal relationship is between units and between agencies commonly regarded as coordination in an effort to distinguish between coordination and administration. Coordination effected between units responsible to a single executive is coordination at the level of units, administration at the level of the executive to whom they are responsible, whereas he in turn participates in coordination with other agencies at his level.”

Term Paper # 4. Principles of Coordination:

Mary Parker Follett who has shifted the principles from techniques has mentioned the following principles of coordination:

(i) Direct Contact:

The principle of direct contact states that coordination can be achieved in a better way through inter-personal relationships. Communication in oral form through personal contacts is more effective to convey and understand ideas, suggestions, views, feelings etc. This helps in removing misunderstanding between two persons or departments making their functioning harmonious.

(ii) Early Beginning:

Coordination should start at the early possible stage, that is at the stage of planning and policy making. At a later stage, when plans a
re executed into actions, coordination becomes difficult when the process has been initiated earlier.

(iii) Continuity:

Coordination is a continuous process. It should always be carried on.

(iv) Reciprocal Relations:

This principle states that all factors in a situation are reciprocally related. The functioning of an individual is influenced by the functioning of others, and in turn it affects the functioning of others. This requires integration of all efforts, actions and interests. This also indicates that the method of achieving coordination is largely horizontal rather than vertical.

Term Paper # 5. Methods of Co-Ordination:

1. Coercive Co-Ordination:

Through Hierarchy:

Coercive co-ordination can be achieved through the organisational hierarchy. If a conflict between the various divisions of a department or between two sections of the same bureau or division arises and is not resolvable through mutual agreement, it is referred to the common official superior. His decision is binding upon them.

However, such occasions should not be oft repeated as decisions so imposed leave a trail of unpleasantness behind them.

Compulsory co-ordination may seem to be an outcome of a fiat of higher authority and may give an impression that it is a matter of issuing orders. It is, however, fallacious to assume that if a proper order issuing authority is there, problem of co-ordination is solved. The issue of proper coordinating order itself involves co-ordination.

In fact, every decision or order is but a moment in a process. It is an organisation product born of an elaborate process of references, consultations and clearances rather than just an order issued without previous thought and preparation.

2. Voluntary Co-Ordination:

In fact, bulk of co-ordination in any organisation is secured voluntarily by mutual adjustment and agreement.

Following are the techniques of voluntary co-ordination:

(a) Conferences:

Co-ordination can be effected through conferences which may be interdepartmental or intradepartmental. Such conferences are beneficial where the number of parties to be consulted is large or where some new policy or proposal is to be explained or where the matter under consultation requires the co-operation of a large many agencies.

Freedom of discussions in such conferences is imperative. In India such a method is being adopted to secure co-ordination of policy and action between Union and the States in various spheres of activities. The Chief Ministers are often called at Delhi to meet the Prime Minister or some other Union Ministers to thrash out issues of policy or chalk out a common line of action.

(b) Through Reference Consultation and Clearance:

Through reference consultation and clearance conflict or duplication can be avoided. Such a method is employed in Government secretariats and departments for coordinating their day-to-day activities. Every proposal or policy which is likely to affect other departments must be circulated amongst them for procuring their agreement before being sent up for decision.

Questions having financial implications should be referred to the finance department with the words ‘Finance, any objection please’ written on the file.

According to Indian administrative procedure, if a secretary of a department sends a question higher up for decision without first clearing it with other departments it is considered as a lapse.

Besides these horizontal references and clearance between departments or sub-units of the same department, vertical references and clearance upward and downwards within the organisational hierarchy are also made. A question necessitating a decision is not sent up to the highest level skipping over intermediate or lower steps of hierarchy.

This process of reference and clearance does cause delay and makes the wheels of administration move slowly. However, this is not too heavy a price for the unity of action which is effected through this method.

The delay can be minimized by circulation of various copies of the papers instead of the one original file, oral consultation over the telephone, or by personnel meeting instead of written reference, direct lateral contacts instead of through proper channel.

(c) Institutional or Organizational Devices:

Co-ordination can be effected by institutional or organisational devices, viz., inter-departmental committees, co-ordination officers, planning commissions or Boards. These bodies are adjunct to organisational hierarchy but not part of it.

Co-ordination is secured through these bodies by exchange of ideas and through consultation. If two or three departments have overlapping jurisdiction, an inter-departmental committee can be constituted for effecting co-ordination.

Single coordinating officers can be useful for co-ordination of field services in a region. In India the D.C. or the Collector and in France the Prefect have proved very useful coordinating officers.

The Planning Commissions effect co-ordination through a central plan prepared in collaboration with the agencies which have to implement it. Such devices are effective for co-ordination of policy and planning and not of routine. Hence, they should be sparingly used.

(d) Standardization of Procedure and Methods:

Standardization of procedure and methods ensures that every worker in the organization will act in the same way under similar circumstances. This results in inculcating advance awareness of one another’s activities, among the members of the group and thus making them co-operate with each other.

Standardization of procedure also facilitates comparison and measurement of results. Common budget and accounting procedures and procurement of supplies procedures check confusion, misappropriation and wastefulness.

(e) Decentralization of Activities:

Co-ordination may be facilitated and conflicts be avoided by the device of decentralization of activities. Each functional activity may be made virtually independent and the central authority may be made nothing more than a ‘kind of holding company’. Such an idea in fact is adopted by large business enterprises having large and complicated activities.

The applicability of this method to public administration would mean that the functional departments should be virtually independent in their operations and the central cabinet should limit itself to co-ordination through budget, planning and personnel.

However, such a method is not easily applicable to Government departments. However, it may be applicable for effecting co-ordination in the Government departments undertaking business activities.

(f) Ideas and Leadership:

If the employees in a Government department or undertaking are convinced of the worthwhileness of the work or the organization, they work as a coherent group and remain united to realize their goal. Stimulating leadership can also enthuse the workers to work unitedly and thus create a sort of esprit de corps among them.

(g) Verbal and Written Communications:

Verbal and written communications can also prove effective in effecting co-ordination. Through them, information and ideas are channelized down, up and across the chain or command.

Every person comes to understand the scope and limits of his functioning, authority and responsibility in relationship with others. But communication to be effective does not require only a communication network but it should also be free from any bottleneck which affects flow of messages adversely.

(h) Centralized House-Keeping Agencies:

Centralized house-keeping agencies also promote co-ordination. In India for instance the Accounting and Auditing service under the Auditor-General, supplie
s under the Director-General of Supplies, construction and repairs of buildings under Central P.W.D. are the central house-keeping agencies through which co-ordination can be effected.

(i) Finance Ministry:

The annual budget which is pursued through Finance Ministry coordinates the resources, expenditures and programmes of the government. The Finance Ministry co-ordinates and reconciles the claims, demands and programmes of the ministries to evolve an agreed plan of action commonly termed as budget.

Further Finance Ministry’s approval is required for the implementation of any programme by the operating departments.

(j) Informal Methods of Co-Ordination:

Besides the formal methods of co-ordination discussed in preceding paragraphs there are certain informal methods of co-ordination as well.

(i) Through personal contacts, free exchange of ideas, frank and candid discussion and agreement by compromise is made possible,

(ii) Committees and Conferences also provide opportunities for such informal consultations.

(iii) Dinners, lunches and tea and cocktail parties have also proved effective media of mass communication.

(iv) A disciplined party system is a very important medium of unofficial co-ordination.

Thus we come to the conclusion that co-ordination is a centripetal force in administration. It can be achieved both through formal and informal methods. The written and verbal communications, conferences, round-table meetings, institutional devices, etc., play as prominent a part in effecting co-ordination as informal methods like lunches and dinners and meetings in committees and conferences.

Term Paper # 6. Hindrances to Effective Coordination:

The vast and expanding activities of the government, the thinning of the span of control and the lack of delegation on the part of high-ups in administration make effective coordination difficult. There is also a limit to which an agency can achieve coordination.

According to Gulick, some of the difficulties arise from:

(i) The uncertainty of the future as to the behaviour of individuals and of people;

(ii) The lack of knowledge, experience, wisdom and character among leaders and their confused and conflicting ideas and objectives;

(iii) The lack of administrative skill and techniques;

(iv) The vast number of variables involved and the incompleteness of human knowledge, particularly with regard to man and life; and

(v) The lack of orderly methods of developing, considering, perfecting and adopting new ideas and programmes.

To these are added four more by Seckler-Hudson. These are the “size and complexity, personalities and political factors, the lack of leaders with wisdom and knowledge pertaining to public administration and the accelerated expansion of public administration to international dimensions.”

Whatever the hindrances, it is obvious that they must be removed in the over-all interest of the effective working of an organization. To end, it may be mentioned that some thinkers welcome the lack of coordination.

Harlan Cleveland, through his ‘tension theory’ suggests that there should be deliberate efforts to create conflicts in jurisdiction and programme so that major issues are discussed clearly for better results.

Miss Follett has advanced the idea of ‘constructive’ conflict recognizing thereby that conflicts should be regarded as a normal process in any activity of an organization so that socially valuable differences get clarity and discussed for the benefit of all concerned.

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[PDF] Essay on Local Government: Meaning and Patterns | Public Administration

Read this essay to learn about the meaning and existing patterns of local government in India.

1. Essay on the Meaning of Local Governments:

Local governments are infra-sovereign geographic units found within sovereign nation or quasi-sovereign state. Like other units of government, local government units possess a defined area, a population, an organisation and also the authority to undertake and the power to perform public activities.

Within its territory, a local government unit seeks to give opportunities to the people for the expression of their opinion in regard to local affairs. It enables them to choose their representatives to take care of local affairs on their behalf.

However, it would not be correct to say that the local government shares any part of the political sovereignty of the state or the legal sovereignty of the government, within the state. Though the word ‘government’ is used for this politico-administrative organisation, it is not government in the sense of a legal sovereign by any means.

It is a semi-autonomous politico- administrative territorial organisation, having come into existence in many countries as the result of decentralization of powers.

In certain countries like England the process was different. Those politico-administrative organisations sprang up from the local communities. But, before they could claim to have definite and comprehensive powers to conduct local affairs, they had to go to the central government for a title.

It was the Municipal Corporation Act, 1835, which gave the boroughs of England the general frame of local government which they retain till today.

The Local Government Act, 1833 recognized county administration in England by transferring administrative powers to elective county councils. Likewise, the District and Parish Councils Act, 1894 provided for urban and rural districts, known collectively as ‘county districts.

The Local Government Act, 1933 and the London Government Act, 1939, said to be the two modern Acts of Parliament, describe the constitution of several types of public bodies concerning local government. Jackson is of the view that local government as applied to England is hardly capable of precise definition.

However, the term according to him has certain implications:

“It is concerned with localities and not with the country as a whole; it must for this reason be subordinate to the national government. The term further implies (as does any other form of government) some jurisdiction or activity of a public nature; it implies also the existence of authorities empowered to exercise that jurisdiction and activity.”

According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, a unit of local government must exhibit three qualifications;

First, it must exist as an organised entity possessing organisation and some minimum powers.

Second, it must have governmental character as an agency of the public to whom it must be accountable.

Third, it must possess substantial autonomy.

In an article, Duane Lockard has defined the local government as a “public organisation authorized to decide and administer a large range of public policies within a relatively small territory which is sub-division of a regional or national government….Local Government is at the bottom of a pyramid of governmental institutions with the national government at the top and intermediate governments (state, regions, provinces) occupying in middle range.”

One is inclined to agree with the above view. Local Government has only a derivative and not an independent authority. Its powers and functions are determined by the state legislature and these can be altered by law.

2. Essay on the Existing Patterns of Local Governments:

There are numerous local governments in the world. Hence it is difficult to make incontrovertible generalization about the nature of local government. It is difficult even to isolate the critical variables that shape it. However, five main systems of local government may be postulated in the world, viz, unitary decentralized, napoleonic prefect, federal-decentralized, local government system of communist countries, and post-colonial systems.

1. Unitary Decentralized:

Integration of local and central authorities is one of the salient features of the modern English local government and that of the Scandinavian countries. Both constitute part and parcel of one governmental system and their relationship is one of partnership and collaboration in a single organism, possessing one common ultimate purpose, and an integrated system of institutions for that purpose.

The relation between the central government and the local authorities is not that of an omnipotent controlling authority and its agents but of partners in an enterprise the carrying on of efficient administration. Lockard categorizes ‘unitary decentralized system’ as that system (that is non-federal) which has stood for a considerable degree of decentralization of autonomous powers of localities.

2. Napoleonic Prefect:

Quite a different system or set-up prevails in France. The French system of local government is highly centralized.

In the words of Prof Munro:

“Centralization is the essence of this system, centralization raised to a superlative degree. All authority converges inward and upward. It can be chartered in the form of a perfect pyramid.” It is said, “In France the Minister of Interior presses the button and the prefects, the sub- prefects, the mayors and the deputy mayors do the rest.”

According to Lockard, such a system may be described as the Napoleonic Prefect system. The peculiarity of this style of local government is that the Central Government places in sub-regions of the nation an agent of the Central Government to oversee and if necessary to countermand, suspend or replace local government.

3. Federal-Decentralized System:

In U.S.A., Canada, Australia, West Germany and Switzerland, the underlying basis of local government is the principle of local self-determination, according to which every community is given a substantial measure of freedom in the administration of its own affairs. This saves the local governments from rigid control, from the above. However, the degree of autonomy of local governments varies from country to country, but in all cases, a considerable degree of local independence prevails. Such a system has been described as Federal-decentralized system according to the International Encyclopedia.

4. Local Government Systems in Communist Countries:

The local government systems in the communist countries are examples of de-concentration of authority rather than decentralization. In other words, the local governmental unit is an agency of the Central Government and its functions are an integral element of hierarchical administrative system of the state. The area of local independence is narrow and extends only to minor matters whereas control devices are extensive and vigorously applied.

5. Post-Colonial System:

Post-colonial system is the fifth category of local governments in the world.

The creation of new nations from former colonies involves varying degrees of change in local government. In some cases, the imposition of a strong single party political system has subverted old patterns almost entirely; in others, where adjustments rather than revolutionary change have been made, local government patterns have not altered drastically.

The legacy of colonialism is omnipresent, however much the new leaders strive for break with the colonial past.

In India, with the ushering in of independent era, it is being realized increasingly that centralization has produced congestion at the centre and anemia at the periphery.

It is being felt that a dynamic democracy can grow only out of meaningful relationship
s and spontaneous organisations that spring up among the people when they come together at the local level to solve their basic problems by co-operation among themselves. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, democracy can exist only on trust.

In pursuance of a new policy of decentralization, both the central and the state governments have conducted enquiries into the working of the existing urban and rural local bodies in order to re organize, expand, democratize and revitalize them. That is necessary to form a stable base for the development of national democracy, and also to play an important role in the development of social and economic systems.

On the whole, however, more attention seems to have been paid to the re-organisation of rural local bodies than of the urban local government. That is perhaps because of an explicit provision of Article 40 as a part of the Directive Principles of the State Policy which states that, the “State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them to function as units of self-government.”

India being a land of villages, emphasis on village panchayats is understandable. It should, however, be recognized that the processes of urbanization will gain momentum in the near future and it would have been better if local self-government may also have been mentioned in the Directive Principles.

The goals of the urban local government in the context of changing conditions in the country have been well described by a recent high-powered committee as:

(a) To function as local units of self-government;

(b) To provide public services and conveniences for healthy living;

(d) To mobilize local resources and utilize them to the maximum good of the community; and

(e) To promote social, economic and cultural development in an integrated manner.

Though most of our urban local bodies have failed so far to achieve these goals, yet it cannot be denied that properly managed local governments can significantly promote democratic values, strengthen democratic structures and serve as suitable agencies for socio-economic development in the local areas.

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[PDF] Essay on Delegated Legislation in India | Legislation | Public Administration

Read this essay to learn about:- 1. Introduction to Delegated Legislation 2. Parliamentary Control over Delegated Legislation in India 3. Committee on Subordinate Legislation.

Essay # 1. Introduction to Delegated Legislation:

There is considerable use of delegated legislation in India. However, statistics are not available to explain precisely the volume of such legislation. Statutory rules are not published in India unlike that of U.K. where the Statutory Instruments Act 1946 requires publication of such rules and orders.

Moreover, Indian Parliament unlike that of its counterpart in U.K. is a non-sovereign body. Its powers and privileges are defined in the Constitution. The constitutional provisions take precedence over the parliamentary enactments and set limits to the latter.

As such, the Acts passed by the Indian Parliament are challengeable in the courts of law. They must conform to the Constitution otherwise their provisions are liable to be declared null and void.

The Delegated Legislation may therefore be declared void under the following situations:

(a) The Enabling Act is ultra vires,

(b) The subordinate legislation violates the Constitution, and

What are the limits of such delegation?—has been answered in Delhi Laws Case and other subsequent decisions of the Supreme Court. According to the majority decision of the Court, “the essential powers of legislation cannot be delegated” and they defined the essential legislative function as the determination or choice of the legislative policy.

Various other decisions of the courts in certain cases, viz., Ram Jawaya v. State of Punjab; Raj Narain Singh v. Chairman, P.A. Committee; Hari Shankar Bagla v. M.P. State; Hamdard Dawakhana v. Union of India, clearly brought out main principles governing delegation of legislative power in India.

The principles so deduced are:

(i) The legislature cannot delegate its essential legislative function to an outside authority in any case;

(ii) The essential legislative function comprises laying down the policy of the law and making it a binding rule of conduct;

(iii) When the essential legislative function of laying down the policy of law and providing guidance for implementing the policy has been performed by the legislature, there can be no constitutional bar against the delegation of subsidiary and ancillary power to an outside authority;

(iv) An act delegating legislative power to an outside authority without laying down the policy or standards of public policy will ipso facto be unconstitutional and hence invalid;

(v) It is open to the legislature to formulate the policy as broadly and with as little or as much details as it thinks proper. The law court could take into account not only the text of the sections of the Act but also the statements in the Preamble of the Act;

(vi) Delegated legislation may assume any of the three forms, namely subordinate legislation, supplementary legislation and conditional legislation. Each one of these forms is subject to the same conditions, viz., and essentiality.

Essay # 2. Parliamentary Control over Delegated Legislation in India:

According to Rule 215 the Rules of Business of the Lok Sabha made a provision for the constitution of a committee on Subordinate Legislation “to scrutinize and report to the House whether the powers delegated by Parliament have been properly exercised within the framework of the statute delegating such power.”

It also necessitated the publication of all rules, regulations and bye-laws in the Gazette of India. Rule 71 further states that, “a Bill involving proposals for the delegation of legislative power shall further be accompanied by a memorandum explaining such proposals and drawing attention to their scope and stating also whether they are of normal or exceptional character.”

Rule 233 prescribes the powers of the Committee. It provides after each such order referred to in Rule 222 is laid before Parliament, the Committee shall in particular consider:

(a) Whether it is in accord with the general objects of the Act pursuant to which it is made.

(b) Whether it contains matters which in the opinion of the Committee should properly be dealt with in an Act of Parliament.

(d) Whether it directly or indirectly excludes the jurisdiction of the court.

(e) Whether it gives retrospective effect to any of the provisions in respect of which the Act does not expressly give any such power.

(f) Whether it involves expenditure from the Consolidated Fund or the Public Revenues.

(g) Whether it appears to make some unusual or unexpected use of the powers by the Act pursuant to which it is made.

(h) Whether it appears to have made unjustifiable delay in the publication or laying it before parliament.

(i) Whether for any reason its form or purport calls for any elucidation.

Rule 224 states, “If the committee is of the opinion that any order should be annulled wholly or in part or should be amended in any respect it shall report that opinion and the grounds thereof to the House within one month of the commencement of a session of Parliament after the promulgation of such orders or within such earlier or later period which a statute of a parliament may have fixed for any specified case.” Further, “if the committee is of the opinion that any other matter relating to any order should be brought to the notice of the House it may report that opinion and matter to the House.”

As per decision of the Supreme Court, the essential functions of the legislature cannot be delegated. For instance, the Indian Legislatures have not been authorized to delegate the following functions:

(i) The power to declare what the laws shall be in relation to any particular territory or locality.

(ii) The power to extend the duration or operation of an Act beyond the period mentioned in the Act.

(iii) The power to repeal or amend a law.

Essay # 3. Committee on Subordinate Legislation:

The Committee on Subordinate Legislation which was appointed in December, 1953 consisted of 15 members including the Chairman who are appointed by the Speaker annually. The Chairman happens to be an important member of the Opposition Party.

The Committee is responsible for evolving a uniform pattern of the terms of delegation incorporated in the Enabling Acts and improving the methods of publicity to the Rules.

The Committee has recommended to Parliament the observance of the following principles:

(a) All the Acts delegating legislative power should uniformly require the rules made under them to be laid before the Houses as soon as possible but not later than a week after publication in the Gazette.

(b) The laying of the rules before the Houses should in all cases be for a period of 30 days.

(c) The Enabling Acts should always provide expressly that the rules made under them shall be subjected to modification by Parliament.

(d) In exceptional cases, provision may be made for laying of the rules and regulations on the floor of the Houses, 30 days before the rules become operative.

There is no denying the fact that the Parliament has not uniformly followed all these principles. However, the committee has in its subsequent meetings acted on the principle that whether any rule is expressly required to be laid before the Houses or not, the committee possesses the right to scrutinize the whole range of subordinate legislation.

Moreover the Parliament possesses the in
herent right to modify any rules whether the Enabling Act made an express provision to that effect or not.

The Committee also recommended giving of sufficient publicity to the rules. It suggested that:

(i) The Government should examine every set of rules to assess whether or not it is of concern or importance to the general public.

(ii) Advance copies of the rules of importance to the general public should be sent to the State Governments, which should publish them in their own Gazettes and also get them translated in the languages of the States. Rules both at the Centre and in the States should be got published simultaneously.

(iii) Government should issue press communiqués to publicize the general purport and effect of the rules and orders.

The Committee suggested to the Government that rules should be written in easily tangible languages. The explanatory notes should be attached to them to explain their general purport. It demanded modification in some specific Rules, viz., the Development Councils Rules 1952, Central Excise Rules 1944, Estate Duty Rules 1953, Tea Rules, 1953, etc.

The Committee showed an unvarying tendency to condemn several features of delegated legislation, viz., curtailment of the jurisdiction of the courts, violation of the provisions of parent Act, indefinite, complex and ambiguous wording, undue delay between publication of an order and its being laid on the floor of the Houses.

In its eleventh report presented in May, 1961, the Committee suggested that assuming fresh powers by the Union Government, to regulate the conditions of service of the personnel of the All-India Service regarding residuary matters, by issuing regulations instead of rule is unjustified.

The Committee’s recommendations have been given due consideration by the Government. Many of them have been accepted. Its work in the initial stages has been fairly impressive.

In the words of Morris Jones, “It has made an able and workman like start to its important task.” Its members are, in the words of G.V. Mavalankar (The Late Speaker of the Lok Sabha) “the only protectors of the people against the new despotism getting aggressive.”

In fact, the committee has so far been functioning dispassionately with a judicial mind and moderation on non-party lines. If it continues functioning on these lines and goes on denouncing certain features of delegated legislation, it is apt to set norms to which delegated legislation would scrupulously adhere.

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[PDF] Recruitment and Public Service | Essay | Public Administration

Here is an essay on the nine major problems faced in the recruitment of personnel for public service. The problems are: 1. Location of the Appointing Power 2. Methods of Recruitment 3. Qualification of Employees 4. Methods of Determining Qualifications 5. Administrative Machinery for Determining Qualifications 6. Certification 7. Appointment and Probation 8. Placement 9. Orientation.

Essay # 1. Location of the Appointing Power:

The first question to be decided in respect to the selection of personnel is to which authority the selection of public officials shall be vested, i.e., whether the people will directly elect the public officers or they will be appointed by some officer or organ of the government proper.

The first method called the democratic method is supported on the basis that democracy can have full effect and meaning only when all public officers are directly elected by the people.

To provide for effective public control over the public employees this method is necessary. Such method is made use of when the service to which appointment is to be made, is purely of a policy-making nature, e.g., Chief Executive or when the service is of a local or restricted nature, e.g., Village Panchayats in India.

If we study this method critically, we would find that it can be made use of only when the service, to which appointment is made, is purely of a policy-making nature or when the service is purely of a local and restricted nature. It is quite proper that the officers whose functions are of a political character, that is having to do with the formation of policies, should be selected by the people by ballot.

But they should not be given the right to select the officers whose duties are purely of an administrative, technical or special character, calling for experience and previous training.

The reason is that sentiments and catchwords play an important part in elections. Technical competence can be secured only by appointment and not by election. The democratic principle, therefore, under which voters elect directly by ballot their officers, is far more applicable to directing than to administrative personnel.

The second method of locating the appointing authority is vesting the power of appointment formally in the Chief Executive but actually in a semi-judicial autonomous body—termed Civil Service Commission. The latter functions as a general personnel agency of the government.

In the United States, however, the appointment of the more important executive or administrative officers by the chief executive does not become effective until approved by the Senate. It would be out of place to attempt any consideration here of the way in which the Senate has used or misused this power.

As a matter of fact, the Senate has so stretched its powers as practically it has usurped the appointment of officers. Such a system does not prevail in India.

Essay # 2. Methods of Recruitment:

The next problem no less important than the preceding one is that of Recruitment from within and Recruitment from without.

As Lewis Mayers has said, “Methods of selection are basically two in number-selection from without the service, or recruitment, and selection from within the service, embracing reassignment and promotion. The problem goes, however, much deeper than the mere technical choice between detailed methods. It goes to the nature of the whole personnel system. Upon its answer, as much as upon any other factor, and perhaps more depends the attractiveness of the service, ultimate calibre of the personnel recruited and trained and its moral. If compensation standards be regarded as the foundation of the personnel system, the lines of promotion and the levels of recruitment constitute its framework.”

Before we proceed further to examine the relative merits and demerits of the two systems, it may be pointed out that the problem really arises in case of the higher middle positions only.

It is obvious that the lowest posts must be recruited from without for there is no lower class of personnel from which to promote, and it is also equally obvious that recruitment of fresh and inexperienced men from outside to the highest positions like those of heads of departments will not do.

Merits of Recruitment from Within (Promotions):

(a) It provides ample opportunities for advancement to the employees. As such, it serves as a great incentive to the hard-working and conscientious employees. This indirectly helps in effecting efficiency.

(b) The very expectation of promotion as a reward for honest and intelligent workers heightens their morale.

(c) The experience gained by the employees in the lower jobs helps them in undertaking jobs entailing higher responsibilities. The Government can safely entrust to them jobs of higher responsibilities.

(d) The Examination system is not a real test of one’s abilities. As such, the defect of the examination system is removed through recruitment from within or promotion. The employee’s work is the best criterion to judge his worth.

(e) Procuring of efficient employees through this system is easier than that of direct recruitment.

(f) It is economical as cost of training is saved. The employees get practical training while serving in an office.

(g) The burden of Public Service Commissions is lessened a great deal, as promotion to higher posts avoids the undergoing of process of advertisement, examination and interviews through it.

(h) It is essential element of career service. According to a “Report, “…a career cannot be said to exist if top positions are generally recruited from outside, from men who do not understand the work in such a way as to create an effective bar to advancement from the bottom to the top of the service itself.”

(i) It re-establishes the human factor in public administration which is lost if recruitment is made through external agencies like Civil Service Commissions. Personal contacts between the officers and the subordinates are apt to be established if on the report of the officers the promotion of the subordinates is to be effected.

Lewis Mayers has well summed up advantages of recruitment from within in these words:

“The obvious reason why the restriction of selection to those in the service may be urged as a matter of principle is that it increases the opportunity for advancement within service, and Still more, that it gives those in the service a definite assurance that under given conditions advancement will come. The anticipated results in terms of a better class of personnel recruited and retained in the lower rank, and a better morale, are obvious. Great as is the desirability, in any personnel system, of multiplying and widening the avenues for advancement to the greatest extent possible, it is especially necessary in the personnel system of governments where at best the opportunities for advancement are not apt to be as great as in private undertakings.”

Defects:

The obvious objection to consistent restriction of selection to those already in the service is firstly that it so severely narrows the area of selection. Unquestionably where the restriction of selection for the highest posts to those already in the service is in force, it not infrequently results in the selection of a less capable or less brilliant officer than could have been found outside the service.

But against the resulting loss of individual efficiency is to be set the increased efficiency due to better morale and greater incentive, displayed by the rank and file of the service, and the intermediate officers.

The knowledge that the highest posts may be the reward of faithful an
d zealous service is a force, making for a day-to-day productiveness, often far more valuable than any results that may be achieved by the chief executives, however able, with a force but mildly interested in its work.

Secondly, it is arguable that, regardless of the relative efficiency of the personnel which may be recruited from without the service as against that which may be promoted from within, adherence to selection solely from within the service leads to stagnation and conservation; that frequent or at any rate, occasional, injection of new blood into a system, particularly at or near the top, is highly desirable.

Thirdly, it undermines the principle of equality of opportunity as recruitment is confined to those who are already in service. It puts premium on experience and as such ignores brilliant, university trained youth. The mediocrities may go on getting higher position simply because of seniority i.e. of being in service. As such, this is condemned as an undemocratic system.

Without depreciating the force of the above contention, it should always be borne in mind that the occasional injection of directing personnel from without represents a merely sporadic attempt to cure a condition which is capable of prevention.

Where a proper incentive to efficiency and to progress, exists throughout a service, and central control and supervision as will expose, by periodic survey and appraisal, as well as by current contact, un-progressiveness or incapacity of the directing personnel as soon as it appears, it is perfectly possible to prevent stagnation at the top from developing; and only occasionally will conditions get to a point where there is imperative need of regeneration by one unfettered by any previous familiarity with the organization.

In this view, to the extent that stagnation exists at the top in the federal service it is chargeable to an improper system of administration in the large, and should be corrected by a revision of that system rather than by attempting, at irregular and accidental intervals, to galvanize the sluggish organism into action.

Nor should the fact be lost sight of that stagnation of the subordinate personnel, which results from the lack of opportunity for advancement, is no less hurtful to efficiency than is stagnation in higher quarters.

Merits of Direct Recruitment:

Direct recruitment system which India has adopted from the British has some striking advantages as follows:

First, it is claimed that it is in consonance with the principle of democracy in as much as all qualified persons get an equal opportunity for public office.

Second, it widens the area of selection, and, therefore, the best talent in the country may be found.

Third, it brings in new blood into the service. By giving the young men and women an opportunity to enter the services, it keeps them continuously adapted to new ideas and outlook of society and prevents services from becoming the exclusive preserve of the experienced and conservative people.

Fourth, in the absence of direct recruitment the persons who are promoted to higher positions are promoted at an age when they have lost all initiative, quickness and vigour. After serving for a number of years in one of the lower positions, a person comes to develop a somewhat cramped outlook which vitiates his thinking when he holds a higher position.

Hence it is argued that experience of a lower position may, far from being an asset in the higher position, prove to be actually a liability.

Fifth, in technical and professional fields, development of new techniques requires new entrants to provide leadership in the adoption of those techniques.

Last, recruitment from without impels the employees already in service to keep abreast of new developments in their several fields lest they might prove inferior in competition for higher posts when pitched against the young men abreast of new techniques and new methodology.

Demerits of Direct Recruitment:

Direct Recruitment has also been denounced by the critics on the grounds stated below:

First, the system entails huge expenditure as lot of money is to be spent on the training of the raw young men joining service for the first time.

Second, it reduces incentive to good work as chances of promotion to higher services are bleak when posts of higher rank are filled through direct recruitment.

Third, the system is apt to cause lot of heart-burning and jealousy. The old, experienced people already in service will not tolerate young men, fresh from the colleges or universities to boss over them.

Fourth, even if the people within service are given an opportunity to compete with the young collegians they are likely to lag far behind, as they are not acquainted with the latest knowledge of the university subjects. Otherwise too with the advanced age, their memory is not as sharp and power of comprehension is not as good as that of the young collegians.

Fifth, under this system, recourse is generally taken to examinations or tests or interviews, which are not the sure test of judging individuals’ abilities. They cannot be considered as fool-proof methods for assessing the personal traits of the applicants.

Last, Public Service Commissions or other agencies of recruitment will be over-burdened if for all services; recruitment is to be made from without.

Essay # 3. Qualification of Employees:

The next problem in the recruitment of personnel is that of determining the qualifications of the employees. In every country, some qualifications are laid down for entry into public service. These qualifications are of two types- (i) General, and (ii) Special. In the former are included citizenship, sex, domicile and age, and in the latter personal qualities like education, experience and technical knowledge.

We shall consider each qualification separately:

General Qualifications:

(i) Citizenship:

In every country, only citizens are appointed to public services. Aliens, who do not owe allegiance to the state, are appointed only for a brief period on ad hoc basis. It is but reasonable that all employees of a government should owe allegiance to it. Loyalty and faithfulness to the government are necessary for keeping the secrets of office which has become so vital these days.

(ii) Domicile:

Along with citizenship sometimes domicile qualifications are required for entering into public services. It is specially so for State services. This qualification began in the U.S.A. and has entered in the Indian State services also.

In the U.S.A. domicile qualification plays an important part in the personnel system of the national government too. Though the law may not require, the convention or practice is firmly established that the offices of postmasters, collectors of revenue, etc., shall be filled from persons residing in the state. This is, however, an undesirable practice. It does violence to the merit principle.

The candidates having high qualifications may be passed over in favour of persons having inferior qualifications simply because the former do not live in the state. Besides affecting efficiency and talent adversely, it also creates provincialism and develops narrow outlook in public administration.

According to a Report, “We were greatly concerned to observe that in one State, for instance, domicile rules were applied not only to determine eligibility for appointment to the public services but also to regulate the awards of contracts….such stipulations in our opinion are not only inconsistent with Articles 15, 16 and 19 of the Constitution but go against the very conception of Indian citizenship.”

Presently for IAS and IPS services
a candidate must be either:

(a) A citizen of India

(b) A subject of Nepal

(d) A Tibetan refugee who came to India before 1st January 1962 and having within time of setting in India

(e) A person of Indian origin who has migrated from Pakistan, Burma Sri Lanka, East African countries having intention to settle in India.

(iii) Age:

The age qualifications of entrants is a matter of great importance, since the policy adopted in respect to it affects vitally the whole character of the personnel system.

The British and the Indian systems preferred to recruit candidates who are between the ages of 20 and 24. In case of India the maximum age limit was 24 till 1972 and was raised to 28 years in 1979. Again in 1986, it was reduced to 26 years. For the year 1992 only, the maximum age for IAS and allied services was raised to 33 years.

An ‘add’ in the Employment News issued on 29th December, 2007 states age limit as under (A) a candidate must have attained the age of 21 years and not have attained the age of 30 years on 1st August, 2008 i.e. he must have been born not earlier than 2nd August, 1978 and not later than 1st anguish 1987 (i) The upper age is relax able up to a maximum of 5 years if a candidate belongs to a scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe (ii) up to maximum of 3 years in case of candidates belonging to other backward classes who are eligible to avail of reservation; (iii) up to a maximum of 5 years if a candidate had ordinarily been domiciled in the state of Jammu and Kashmir during the period – 1st January 1980 to December 3, 1989; (iv) up to a minimum of 3 years in case of Defence services personnel disabled in operation during hostilities with any foreign country or in a disturbed area and released as a consequence; (v) up to a maximum of 5 years in case of Ex-servicemen who have rendered at least 5 years service in Military as on August 1st, 2008 and have been released of; (vi) up to in a maximum of 5 years in case of ECOS/SSCOS who have completed 5 years of service as on 1st August 2008 and whose assignment has been extended beyond 5 years; (vii) up to a maximum of 10 years in case of blind, deaf and orthopedically handicapped person.

However, in general category four attempts are allowed to appear but in case of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes no restriction at all; in case of OBC seven attempts are allowed.

The physically handicapped will get as many attempts as are available to other non-physically handicapped candidates. However, physically handicapped person of general category will be eligible for 7 attempts for taking the examination.

An ‘add’ on December 6, 2008 in a daily clearly confirms age limit 21 to 30 years for general category as on August 1, 2009 and is relax able for scheduled castes and tribes and OBCs and other categories as specified above.

The candidates at this age have received only liberal education and general knowledge and are not experienced and trained. The examinations are of a character to determine general educational attainments. America does not follow the British practice.

There is no attempt to turn the government services into a career. The examinations determine technical qualifications. Hence the age scale in USA ranges from 18 years to 45 years.

The advantages of the American practice are larger freedom of selection, hence better talent, and less expenditure to be incurred in training the new entrants. Riper Paul point out “in American recruitment system, one may enter the American public service at almost any level and at almost any age.”

(iv) Sex:

It is not many years ago when public service was the sole monopoly of man. No women were employed in the government departments especially in the higher services. It is within the memory of the authors when no woman in India for instance was allowed to appear in the competitive examination held for IAS and other Central services.

Women, as a rule, were considered unfit for administrative jobs. But due to the spread of the doctrine of equality and the aspiration of women to economic independence, the sex qualification has been removed from recruitment to public services in most countries.

A sizable number of women are at present employed in the Central Government, most of them holding lower positions. In previous few years, in the IAS and IPS exams, they have been topping.

W.F. Willoughby is of the opinion that “As a general rule, women do not have the experience or other qualifications fitting them for the most responsible positions and particularly those coming within the class of directing personnel.” Every man must be suited to his work.

There are certain offices, e.g., in the armed forces for which women may not be suited at all and reversely there are certain offices for which women alone are better suited, e.g., for nurses, kindergarten teachers, telephone operators, etc.

Thus it implies that natural capacities of men make men better suited to certain posts for which women are not well suited. Under the over-enthusiasm and sentiment for equality all the posts are being thrown open equally for men and women.

Recently for ground jobs (class I) both in the Air Force and Navy women have been recruited (1992). Their performance in the written tests and interview has been much better than the men folk. Besides their merit career wise has also been very high.

The nature of the work required however for the post should be the practical consideration. It is felt women are not well suited for certain arduous jobs. Hence they should be kept out of such services.

Special Qualifications:

(i) Educational Qualifications:

By educational qualifications is meant both the ordinary education that is acquired by the students in general educational institutions and the special education imparted in professional colleges.

The British and the Indian system lay down definite educational qualifications for entrants—Higher Secondary School certificate for clerical jobs; graduate degree for executive jobs. In India there is no discrimination between liberal and scientific education.

According to the latest publication on the educational qualification required for IAS and Allied Service the candidate must hold a degree of any of the universities incorporated by an Act of the Central or State Legislature in India or other educational institutions established by an Act of Parliament or declared to be a deemed university under section 3 of the UGC Act 1956 or possess an equivalent qualification.

The subjects of the competitive examination are so broad based as to include every subject. Engineering graduate or Medical graduates were previously handicapped as they had to prepare two optional subjects they had not read at all. Now both from Engineering and Medical (MBBS) optional subjects have been included.

This wide coverage of subjects has enabled brilliant doctors and engineers also to take the IAS and Allied examination. In America, the requirement of formal education for entry into government jobs of a non-technical character is opposed. In 1944 the American Congress forbade any educational requirement except for scientific, technical and professional positions.

The advantage of the system of formal educational qualifications is that only those who have a chance to compete with success may take the examination. If no formal educational qualifications are required of the candidates, everyone can compete, and it will result in great waste of public funds and the task of Public Service Commission also shall become stupendous to the degree of unmanageableness.

(ii) Experience:

By experience is meant the training that a person receives in the actual performance of the work, for example, a person who after obtaining a degree serves as a teacher in some educational institution for four years, has the teac
hing experience of four years. In U.S.A. experience is usually required for technical services. In other countries for all public services experience is regarded an additional qualification.

(iii) Technical Knowledge:

It means the possession of technical skill required for the proper performance of duties of that particular position, for example, to become a Civil Engineer it is necessary to have a Degree in Civil Engineering. This qualification is essential to fill up technical posts such as those of legal experts, doctors, mechanics, etc.

(iv) Personal Qualifications:

They are at once the most important and most difficult to determine. They range from good moral character to energy, resourcefulness, tact, reliability, punctuality, executive ability, and even personal appearance and manner.

It hardly needs an emphasis that the value of officers is in many cases, at least, as dependent upon the possession of these personal qualities as those of an educational or technical character. The tasks of modern administration require of its employees highly administrative skills.

These skills have been summarized by Pfiffner as follows:

(a) A flexible, but essentially scientific, mode of thought, characterised by a recognition of the need for coordination.

(b) Familiarity with the subject-matter of organisation and management.

(d) A highly developed reading and writing ability.

(e) Ability to settle vexing situations through impersonal contact.

It is very difficult to judge these personal skills accurately at the time of recruitment because no accurate method has been so far devised for the purpose. The use of methods like sample survey through questionnaires, psychological tests or aptitude tests does not enable us to make any accurate judgment of the candidate’s personal skills.

Essay # 4. Methods of Determining Qualifications:

Above we have specified various qualifications required of the entrants for public services. The purpose of laying down these qualifications is to get the best qualified and most competent men for government service. The question now arises—how to determine these qualifications?

Upon the proper solution of the question will depend the efficiency of the whole administrative system.

Examination of this problem reveals that generally the following methods have been adopted to determine the qualifications:

(i) Personal judgment of the appointing officer,

(ii) Certificates of ability, character and education,

(iii) Record of previous experience—educational and professional,

(iv) Examinations—competitive and non-competitive.

We shall examine each method separately.

(i) Personal Judgment of the Appointing Officer:

This is the simplest and the oldest method of recruitment. Under it the appointing officer himself determines the qualifications of the candidates. He makes his own personal judgment in making selections. This system can procure good results under certain conditions, for example, when the number of appointments to be made is small and it is possible for the officer to give to the matter the time and attention that are required, and he is not under political pressure and is free from personal considerations. This system is followed in the appointment of topmost positions in the official hierarchy in India as well as in other countries.

But in actual practice these conditions are rarely met. Many services are of such vast size that the head of the department making appointments cannot give that much time and attention which is required for the purpose. Moreover, the task of ascertaining the qualifications of the candidates is so technical and hard that it cannot be performed single-handedly and, therefore, requires the assistance of a body of experts.

Finally, the officer making appointment is subject to political and personal pressure very often which is exceedingly difficult for him sometimes to resist. In view of these considerations it is imperative that other devices for determining qualifications should be employed.

The factor of personal judgment may have controlling weight in the appointment of private secretaries and other officers having a especially confidential character. In respect to other positions this factor may be given weight by asking the appointing officer to make a selection from among three or four candidates recommended for appointment by the Public Service Commission, thus giving him an opportunity to determine, through the use of his own judgment, the suitability of the candidates for his department.

(ii) Certificate of Character, Ability and Previous Experience:

The value of certificates of character and ability from responsible persons and of experience from the previous employer is evident. These certificates are usually secured in all cases. They help to make a preliminary estimate of the candidates’ capacities and qualities on the basis of which they may be called for interview.

It may be pointed out that these certificates cannot be made the sole criterion for judging the qualifications of the candidates. But it may, however, be emphasised that the certificates, if they are to give useful results, should be issued uninfluenced by any extraneous considerations and should describe the candidate’s achievements truly.

(iii) Examinations:

The above devices, valuable as they are in determining the fitness of the candidates, have their definite limitations. The method of personal judgment, as shown above, is open to arbitrary judgment and personal considerations. The method of securing certificates of ability and experience can help only to make a preliminary selection and cannot be made the sole criterion of judging the suitability of the candidates. Therefore provision is made to subject the candidates to examination of various types.

Examinations are mainly of two types—competitive and non-competitive. The purpose of a competitive test is to determine which of the candidates satisfy the minimum standards required and then to determine their relative positions in order of merit, i.e., which of them is the best, the next best, the third best and so on. The non-competitive test confines itself to determine merely which of the candidates satisfy the minimum standard required. It is obvious that a true examination system must select those who not only fulfil the maximum requirements, but also the best among them in order of excellence.

Generally speaking, there are four basic types of examinations, namely:

(i) Written Examinations,

(ii) Oral Examinations,

(iii) Performance Demonstration, and

(iv) Evaluation of Education and Experience.

These may be used singly or in combinations according to the nature and grade of the post.

Essay # 5. Administrative Machinery for Determining Qualifications:

What administrative machinery shall be employed to hold the various tests described above? It has been generally recognised that these tests should be held by an independent and impartial body of persons who might not fall a prey to political manoeuvrings.

This body is generally called the Public Civil Service Commission which is made in charge not only of the recruitment and examination of public personnel but is also entrusted with other duties having to do with personnel, viz., exercising a supervision and control over the operating services in respect to the observance by them of laws and regulations governing the promotion, transfer, leave, pay, etc.

Essay # 6. Certification of Employees:

Certification follows recruitment and examination. It means the submission of the eligible names for the consideration of the appointing authority—the head of the operating service.

There are two methods of certification:

(a) The supply agency certifies a list of eligibles in order of merit and the employing authority is required to appoint the requisite number in the same order. In I.A.S. this system is followed,

(b) The supply agency supplies a list: of three names for each appointment and the appointing authority selects any one name from the list. This is followed in I.F.S.

Essay # 7. Appointment and Probation of Employees:

After the appointment is notified to the Civil Service Commission by the appointing authority in response to the former’s recommendation, the employee so appointed is put on probation for a specified period. Despite following a proper recruitment process, there is no certainty whether a proper person has been selected or not.

The real test of the fitness of a man is actual performance of work. Hence appointment is made on the basis of probation or provisional basis. The period of probation varies from six months to a year. During the probationary period, the officer keeps a close watch on the conduct and work of the employee.

If he is satisfied with his work, the employee is confirmed in his position! at the end of the probationary period. A Conference Committee rightly pointed out, “The probation period should be considered as an opportunity for the appointing authority to complete the selection process.

No formal test, however well devised and however carefully conducted, will prove infallible. The final test is actual performance. For this reason, the new appointee should be carefully supervised and critical observation should be made of his work during the period of probation.”

Prof. Willoughby rightly pointed out, “Did it do nothing more, it tends to meet the objection often raised by administrative officers that under a system of recruitment of personnel through a central agency, they have forced upon them employees who do not meet their particular requirements.”

The system has proved better than demotion or dismissal of an employee at a later stage. An employee is given a clear understanding at the time of appointment that his selection is not yet complete. His actual work will secure his appointment. He will not face mental agonies if during probation or after it he is thrown out of the job.

The system is desirable also from tax-payer’s point of view. Why should not the government devise foolproof methods of selecting the employees who are to be paid out of the taxpayer’s money ?

Otherwise too, demotion and dismissals cause bad feelings among the people in general and the employees in particular. Frequent dismissals show that proper choice was not made and people’s money has been wasted. The interest of the tax-payers also demand that the government should employ capable persons and after appointing them accord them proper treatment.

However, it is advisable that the officer at the helm of affairs should maintain service records of employees on the probation and submit report regarding their work to the Public Service Commission. The opinion of the Civil Service Commission must also be given due weight while confirming or removing the probationers.

Essay # 8. Placement of Employees:

However sound may be our system of recruitment and examination and however capable personnel we might have secured, much of their value is lost due to poor assignments. A wrong assignment results in wastage of talent. Placement should therefore be made after properly discerning the aptitudes, and capacities of the employees.

The Public Service Commissions recommend the names of the eligibles in order of merit in general abilities. The operating services may give weight to the general abilities but should give more consideration to other factors, viz., interests, experience, training and personality. This is the only way to utilize the talents and capacities of their employees.

Essay # 9. Orientation of Employees:

Through orientation, the entrants are acquainted with the objectives of the agency in which they have been placed, and also the methods and details of work. According to Mandell, the orientation programme “relieves the employee of the stage fright associated with entering a new job and is a sign to him that the organisation is interested in both his welfare and in helping him adjust to his new surroundings.”