Category: Commerce Notes PPT

In a partnership firm when one of the partners leaves and the rest of the partners continue the business, the partner who leaves is an outgoing partner. The partnership law dictates certain rights and liabilities for such a partner. Let’s learn more about the rights of an outgoing partner. 

The Right of an Outgoing Partner to Carry on a Competing Business 

Indian Partnership Act, 1932 commonly known as the Partnership law allows an outgoing partner to pursue a business that is of a competing nature with the partnership firm. The law also allows for the promotion of the business. Subsection 1 of Section 36 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 forces certain limiting conditions. The Act limits him from doing the following.

• He cannot use the partnership firm’s name.

• He cannot represent himself as a member of the partnership.

• He cannot solicit the customs of people who had been dealing with the firm before he ceased to be a partner. 

Subsection 2 of Section 36 of the Partnership Act mentions an agreement in restraint of trade. This subsection states that an outgoing partner may make an agreement with his partners that on ceasing to be a partner he would not carry on any business similar to that of the partnership firm within a stipulated period of time or an identified local limit. This is notwithstanding anything contained in Section 27 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Such agreement shall be considered valid if only the restrictions imposed are reasonable.

The Right of an Outgoing Partner to Share Subsequent Profits

Section 37 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 defines the right of an outgoing partner to share subsequent profits under certain circumstances. This is applicable when any member of a partnership firm dies or otherwise ceases to be a partner and the surviving or continuing partners continue with the business of the partnership firm. There is no need for any final settlement of accounts, since the outgoing partner already entitles, either by himself or by his representatives, to share his profits made by the partnership firm. Moreover, the outgoing partner or his representative is entitled to use his share of the property of the firm or draw interest at the rate of six per cent per year on the amount of his share in the property of the firm.

However, the surviving partners or the continuing partners are given an option to purchase the interest of a deceased partner or outgoing partner, and if that option gets duly exercised, the deceased partner or the outgoing partner is not entitled to any other share of profits or further share of profits in the partnership firm.

Solved Examples on Rights of Outgoing Partner

Q1: Dave, Jack and Robert are partners in a gaming company. Robert retires after he sold his share in the partnership firm. But, Dave and Jack could not pay Robert the agreed value of the share. How would Robert be able to recover the amount?

Ans: The value of Robert’s share on the date of his retirement from the partnership firm will stay as a pure debt on the partnership firm. This debt shall be applicable from the date from which Robert ceased to be a partner of the firm according to the agreement between his partners and him. His share amount could be recovered by him along with interest on the amount he was supposed to be paid.

Q2: Dave, Jack and Robert are partners in company manufacturing shoes. Dave is entitled to two-sixths of the property of the partnership firm and the profits earned by the firm. After three years of the business, Dave goes bankrupt, but Jack and Robert carry on with the business without paying out Dave’s share of the assets of the firm or settling the accounts with Dave’s estate. Would Dave get a share of the profits earned?

Ans: Yes, Dave would get his share of profits from the firm. He is ideally entitled to two-sixths of the profits of the firm from the date he went bankrupt till the final liquidation of the partnership.

Q3: Is an out-going partner allowed to continue with a business that competes with the partnership firm?

Ans: Yes, an out-going partner can continue to carry on a business which could be a competitor of the firm. He could also advertise it. 

Q4: Discuss the rights and duties of an outgoing partner.

Ans: An outgoing partner enjoys his right to continue with a business which competes with the partnership firm and even advertise it. It is his duty not to use the name of the partnership firm, not to represent himself as a member of the firm. He shouldn’t take the name of the firm to introduce himself anymore, and he should avoid soliciting the custom of persons who have been dealing with the firm from before he started ceasing to be a partner.

Q5: Which Section of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 deals with the right of an outgoing partner in certain circumstances to share future profits?

Ans: Section 37.

Q6: Section 36(1) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 deals with the agreement in restraint of the trade. TRUE or FALSE?

Ans: FALSE. It’s subsection 2 of Section 36 which deals with the same.

To understand the concept of sacrificing ratio effectively, we must be somewhat familiar with how a partnership firm functions. 

Typically, such a firm is formed when two or more individuals decide to run a business with the common aim to earn profits. The liability of partners of such a firm tends to be unlimited, and all partners are jointly held accountable for all debts and losses.

 

However, partners tend to share all their accrued profits and losses in a pre-determined ratio. Notably, partners may decide to change their profit and loss sharing ratio on mutual agreement and may also opt to include or exclude a new partner into their firm.

It is under situations like these that financial tools like sacrifice ratio come into play and help partners to keep the accounting aspect of a firm smooth.

That being said, let’s now take a detailed look at the sacrificing ratio and the exact situations under which it is most effective.

What is Sacrificing Ratio?

The meaning of sacrifice ratio in accounting can be explained as the proportion in which existing partners surrender their share of profit in favour of newly admitted partners. The share thus sacrificed is usually given to new partners by either some existing partners or all of them. It must also be noted that existing partners may opt to forego shares for the new admission in an agreed proportion.

So, in simple words, it can be said that sacrifice ratio is simply the difference between their old ratio and their new ratio. 

The Sacrifice Ratio Formula can also be Expressed as –

Sacrificing ratio = Old profit sharing ratio – New profit sharing ratio

A partnership firm needs to compute this ratio. It helps to determine the sum of money that would be paid by gaining partners as compensation to sacrificing partners. Usually, such compensation is paid as per the defined amount of goodwill.

Now, it must be noted that sacrificing partners are those individuals whose share of profit decreases with the change in partner’s profit-sharing ratio. On the other hand, a gaining partner is that individual whose share of profit increments with a change in the partner’s profit-sharing ratio. 

Test Your Knowledge: 

Problem 1: Jake and Gina are partners in a firm and share profits in the ratio of 3:1. Terry is admitted into a partnership for 1/8th share of profits. Find out the new profit sharing ratio in this case. 

Problem 2: Ross and Phoebe are partners in a firm and share profit and loss in the ratio 5:3. A new partner, Joey, enters the firm for 1/5th share and acquires his portion of share from Ross. Find the new profit-sharing of Ross and Phoebe.

Learn how to solve these problems and much more by referring to our study solutions.

When Can One Apply the Sacrificing Ratio?

Sacrificing ratio in partnership can be used under two situations. Read along to find out more about those situations.

Situation 1 – When partners decide to change their profit and loss sharing ratio

Sometimes partners decide to revise their existing profit and loss sharing ratio to enhance the existing partners’ profit-earning prospect. However, to ensure it, some partners may have to sacrifice their share of profit in an agreed proportion. 

In such a situation, the sacrificing ratio is used to find out the share of profit some of the partners have to forego to benefit the other existing partner. It must be noted that the sacrificing ratio formula is applied in case of each partner and both their old and new ratios are factored in. Through the course of calculation, if the outcome is positive in value, it would indicate that the specific partners are sacrificing their share for other existing partners. Contrarily, if the outcome is negative in value, it would indicate that the partners are gaining shares in prospective profits and assuming additional liability for future losses.

Situation 2 – In case of admission of a new partner in the firm

When an individual enters the firm as a firm partner, it becomes mandatory to adopt a new profit sharing ratio. Nevertheless, it must be noted that there are different situations when the new profit sharing ratio of partners has to be computed. 

A few of such situations are as follow –

• When just the profit-sharing ratio of the new partner is mentioned.

• When existing partners are surrendering a fixed portion of their share in favour of newly admitted partners.

• In a situation when partners decide to forego a specific proportion of their share.

Now that we have gained a substantial idea about the sacrificing ratio; let’s now take a look at the point of differences between two concepts that are often confusing. 

This table below would offer you a fair idea about the differences between the two financial measures and help to eliminate fundamental doubts and queries. 

Difference Between Sacrificing Ratio and Gaining Ratio

In case, you want to learn in details about the sacrifice ratio and other associated concepts of partnership, in general, you can access ’s compact study solutions online. 

Also, by enrolling for our free online classes, you would be able to become familiar with the essential topics for exams. In turn, it would help you to gain valuable insight as to how to prepare for your board examinations more effectively.

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The shape of the total product curve is used to determine teamwork by using variable inputs with predetermined input. Total Product or TP also represents the total amount of result or output than a firm can produce within a given time and amount of labour. It is essential to know that the amount of work can change with the change in output as well.

This section will help a student understand the relationship between TP and MP and how it affects the production and cost shapes. 

Factors Determining Total Product Average Product and Marginal Product

Before understanding the essential functions of production and cost shape, the terms like TP AP MP must be distinguished.

What is Total Product or TP?

Total product is the total amount of output made with a given amount of input during a period. A firm wanting a rise in the total product in the shortest time or short-run can increase its variable factors as fixed factors will remain the same.

It is essential to know that in long-run factors become variable and a firm can increase its total product by increasing its characteristics. These factors gradually become inconsistent, and the concept of total products aids in understanding the marginal product.

What is Marginal Product or MP?

A marginal product can be determined by calculating total product and adding marginal returns. The rise in output per unit and the increase in the input is called a marginal effect. If one takes labour as input for production, then a marginal product can be calculated by using this formula.

MP = Change in output divided by change in the input

TP = ƩMP

What is Average Product or AP?

The average product is the per-unit total of a product with a variable factor which can be taken as labour. The calculation of average production can be done with the formula-

AP = Total Product divided by units of variable factor input 

AP= TP/L

It can also be calculated by TP = AP x L

What Is The Relationship Between TP AP and MP?

In the above diagram, the TP curve rises at an increasing way after which it gradually rises but at a decreasing rate. This gives the S-shaped, which shows a trend continuing till TP reaches max. Here MP is zero after which TP starts to decrease 

In the MP curve, there is even a gradual rise which reaches max and then falls. It is essential to know that when MP is maximum at the point, TP starts to rise in a diminishing way. Here MP is negative while TP remains positive even at its fall.

Now the AP curve shows similar characteristics as MP. It starts to increase and reaches max to fall. At this point, AP rises to its highest level. Here AP becomes equal to MP.

Here the relationship between AP and MP as well as TP is seen in inverted U shape.

This chapter has many topics which are vital to understand and practice. is a learning site that offers rational solutions to understand the relationship between TP and MP. They offer quality solutions, live classes, and practice questions for the all-round development of young learners.

To enjoy these features at a budget-friendly price, download the app now.

In the world of business, communication is an important feature. In communication, you must acquire the skill of speaking properly with everyone. Thus, you must have excellent expertise in spelling and vocabulary. In this article, you will learn many things about spellings and pronunciations.

Spelling

English plays a crucial role in our life. You can effortlessly understand the word’s spelling by pronouncing it. However, it cannot be the same in every case. There are specific exceptions to it. You can go through some rules here to learn the spellings and remember it. 

Here are three rules for determining correct spelling. 

Spelling Rule 1: The Silent E

Basically, a letter E after the consonant at the top of the word is silent; however, this does affect how you will pronounce the vowels that are going to come before consonants. The letter E creates the sound of the vowel long enough. 

Spelling Examples

The monkey tried to bite me.

In this case, the silent E creates a different word. 

When you are going to add a suffix, the E that is silent is typically dropped off from the top of the basic word. 

Similarly, try to find out what is the spelling of pronunciation. The spelling of pronunciation is also quite simple. Sometimes, you might come across the wrong spelling for pronunciation as “pronunciation.” However, this is the correct spelling of pronunciation.  

Spelling Rule 2: Double Consonants

Try to pay much attention here when you are studying double consonants. It is often difficult to listen when the words are claimed aloud. The double consonants are most of the time identified in words where suffixes are used. 

Some words are often pronounced with many syllables; however, the spelling will always remain exact.    

Be much careful with the words where the double consonant changes the pronunciation and, therefore, it’s meaning. 

Spelling Rule 3: Plural Suffixes

When should you add -s, and -es to form a plural? You might face quite a difficulty in doing so. If the word concludes in -sh, -s -ch, or -z, add -es.

For all other endings, add -s. Some words might not when you are pronouncing the plural form. For example, fish, sheep, etc. If you are not sure,  you should check the dictionary.

One must look out of the way to spell all the words correctly. A number of the repetitive errors associated with spelling are

1. Confusion Between ‘ei’ and ‘ie’ 

The word received has ‘ei,’ so the chief word has ‘ie’ letters. 

You will notice that you used ‘ie’ after the ‘c’ letter. You also use letters’ ei’ with the remainder.

2. Alphabets and Its Repetition 

Some words like tomorrow, starting, occupation, business, etc. have many repetitions of the alphabets. 

3. Extra Alphabet within the Word 

An additional alphabet within a word alters its meaning entirely. 

Within the word, if ‘to’ is added one extra ‘o,’ we get ‘too.’ 

The word ‘to’ means where you are directing to and the word ‘too’ means ‘also’.

4. Keeping and Dropping ‘e’ Letter 

One should know the accurate time to drop or keep the letter ‘e’ when making a replacement of a word from its basis. 

Must drop ‘e’ when ‘whole’ word turns to wholly. As you know, the letter ‘e’ is kept here, sincerely.

5. Words with the Similar Pronunciation; However, with Variant Spellings 

Example: compliment and complement, whole and hole, vice and wise, etc.

6. Using Letters ‘z’ and s.’ 

Using the letter ‘s’ and therefore the letter ‘z’ is suitable. When you write organization as an organization, that’s correct.

7. Various Past Forms 

Some words have many past forms. However, it will depend on the place where you are using it. For example,

In the present tense, you can use “Lie”; however, in past and past participle, it becomes “Lied”. Similarly, you can use “Lie” in the present tense; however, it becomes “Lay” and “Laid” in the past participle.

The interesting thing is that both of these words are correct. The thing that changes is the place that you are using it.

Pronunciation

The way you speak a word is pronunciation. Some rules might change when you are pronouncing the word. Improper pronunciation might cause a nasty impression. One must pronounce the words properly for proper communication without misunderstanding. You can also try at home by understanding how to pronounce spelling. 

Example of Pronunciation Words

To know about an example pronunciation, you can take the word itself. You will have to split the word into pieces when you are going to pronounce it. First of all, the spelling is pronounced so that it becomes easier for you to pronounce it. Then, you can split it into “Pro,” “Nun,” “Cia,” and “tion.” Similarly, you can try to pronounce examples to crosscheck how much you have learnt.

We often face situations when we need to jot down important notes in a professional way or, at least, in an approach that can be easily understood. From the perspective of students, they are often loaded with various projects, and most of them, in the age of the Internet, look for acquiring information from the web as much as possible. Now, copying them directly is not a work of genius. Rephrasing the same information in your own words will make the student stand out in the crowd. It also helps in remembering the topic for a longer period as it is written on the basis of what a student understands. This is professionally known as an article. The steps of article writing are given below.

Defining Articles

An article is a script written to address a larger audience. The concept of the article is not limited only to schools; it plays a greater role in business promotions and expressing an array of ideas. When it comes to business paragraph writing, the main objective is to publish in newspapers, journals, or magazines through which the writer can make a difference to the world. It’s important to know how to write a good business article. It may be the current business topics to write about or it may be related to specific products or services which require branding. The gravity of the article is determined by the tone of the language.

What are the Objectives of Article Writing?

Publishing is a vital objective of article writing. The other objectives of article writing are listed below.

• To achieve attention as much as possible.

• To portray a particular topic or interest into the limelight.

• To portray the subject professionally.

• To make it interesting so that readers are engaged to read more.

• To offer advice and suggestions.

• To make any topic or issue easy to understand.

• To influence the reader to think about the focused chapter.

• You can write a business article sample after going through these points and enhance your skills in writing.

Format of Article Writing

With so many objectives of an article, it is quite predictable that the presentation must be unique in order to achieve the utmost success. Different writers portray their ideas and in their own writing styles, but there is an overall guideline that is maintained by all. An article must start with an engaging heading or title so that readers immediately dive into the body. An abstract must be added immediately after the heading to let people know what they are going to read about and how the content is helpful to them. Make it short and precise so that the entire topic is captured on a quick note. Following the synopsis comes the body of the article that consists of 3 to 4 paragraphs.

When it comes to business paragraph writing, various writers use different tactics, and depending on the topic, sometimes the body of an article exceeds the usual counts of paragraphs. The length of an article is further dependent on the pattern of writing and particular business demands. The article must end with a short conclusion based on recommendation, opinion, anticipation, or appeal. Initially, to make it simpler, a good article is a result of implementing quality writing techniques and good content.

What are the Steps for Article Writing Format?

If you are thinking about how to write a good business article, consider writing a business article sample and find the current business topics to write about. Now, before starting, it’s crucial to focus on the topic and research thoroughly on the web to clear out the confusion. This will also help in gathering information as much as possible. The content must be created based on the following constraints.

Target Audience – Determine who your readers are and write accordingly.

Collection and Choice – Make sure to stay connected with the interim details and portray the information available.

Purpose – Why should the readers read your article?

Proper Arrangements – Present your information logically so that readers can understand easily.

Only after analysing these constraints, is it time for final writing. Bear in mind, article writing is not similar to story writing, and thus, it requires special attention when delivering the topic in your own words. Therefore, use proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Make sure to build on your vocabulary skills to make the topic interesting and appealing. The introduction of the topic must be catchy to establish an urge among readers to read more. Discuss the overall matter in an organized and descriptive way. Writing a business article sample would help to master the process.

How to Write a Good Article?

There are several factors that every good article contains. Before publishing any article, it is necessary to write a draft for that. These drafts can be revised for grammatical and syntactical errors. Once these mistakes are done away with, a good article emerges.

Qualities of a Good Draft for an Article: 

To come up with a good article, it is necessary to write a good draft. Certain qualities make any draft a good article. Some of these are: 

• Concise: An article must only contain relevant information. It should not include unnecessary details. A writer must always keep in mind that while adding irrelevant phrases will increase the word count but it would make the entire article unappealing to the readers. The main aim of the writer should always be to convey the message to the readers in as few words as possible. The use of unnecessarily big words must be avoided. An article that concisely delivers the information is usually considered the best.

• Clear: It should always be the objective of the writer to convey his thoughts.  A writer should always strive to achieve clarity in his thoughts and writing. If the article is handwritten the writing of the author should be legible. However, this does not mean that there should be unnecessary beautification of the writing. A person should avoid adding embellishments in his writing. The handwritten material should be simple and easy to read.  

• Complete: Any unfinished article that is written by a good author is of no use. There is no point in starting a write-up with the best first paragraph if it is left incomplete. A person writing a good article must make an effort to complete it with the same zeal and enthusiasm. A complete article is always better than an unfinished one. There should always be a proper introduction and conclusion in a good draft. Writers should always include relevant information in the middle portion.  

• Precise: A good article is known for its precision. The content of any article should always stay true to the topic. Any information that is not related to the main theme of the article should be avoided. It is the duty of the author to make sure that the data supporting the facts of the article is appropriate. It is good to know many facts but while writing any article the writers should only focus upon the necessary ones. That is why it is important to write a draft first so that a good article can follow.

• Pleasant: The language used while writing an article should be pleasant. A writer should not use improper words in any scenario. Every person referred to in the article must be properly addressed with an appropriate salutation. For example, while writing about the president or the prime minister, the use of the term ‘Honourable’ is considered proper. Similarly, different titles throughout the world are used while referring to a person from the royal family. A person reading a pleasant-sounding article enjoys more as compared to a bland one. 

• Usage of Correct Words: A writer should focus on using simple words. The technical words might sound more appropriate but it is better to avoid using them, especially if they are difficult to understand. It should always be the goal of the person to avoid using jargon or big words. Using words whose meaning is not clear might change the whole meaning of the content. An author should always keep the audience in mind and use only those terms that can be easily understood by them. 

• Logically Arranged: The author must always make sure that his thoughts are properly arranged in the article. The article should begin with a brief introduction of the topic, followed by the content and conclusion. The data mentioned in the article must be properly organized.

Tabulation is the systematic and logical representation of figures in rows and columns to ease comparison and statistical analysis. It eases comparison by bringing related information closer to each other and helps further in statistical research and interpretation. In other words, tabulation is a method of arranging or organizing data in a tabular form. The tabulation process may be simple or complex depending upon the type of categorization. 

Tabulation Definition

Tabulation is defined as the process of placing classified data in tabular form. A table is a systematic arrangement of statiscal information in rows and columns. The rows of a table are the horizontal arrangement of data whereas the columns of a table are the vertical arrangement of data. 

What are the Essential Parts of a Table?

To tabulate data correctly, one must learn about the eight essential parts of a table. These are as follows – 

1. Table Number – 

This is the first part of a table and is given on top of any table to facilitate easy identification and for further reference.

2. Title of the Table – 

One of the most important parts of any table is its title. The  title is either placed just below the table number or at its right.It is imperative  for the title to be brief, crisp and carefully-worded to describe the tables’ contents effectively.

3. Headnote –

The headnote of a table is presented in the portion just below the title. It provides information about the unit of data in the table, like “amount in Rupees” or “quantity in kilograms”, etc.

4. Column Headings or Captions – 

 The headings of the columns are referred to as the caption. It consists of one or more column heads. A caption should be brief, short, and self-explanatory, Column heading is written in the middle of a column in small letters.

5. Row Headings or Stubs – 

The title of each horizontal row is called a stub.

6. Body of a Table – 

This is the portion that contains the numeric information collected from investigated facts. The data in the body is presented in rows which are read horizontally from left to right and in columns, read vertically from top to bottom.

7. Footnote – 

Given at the bottom of a table above the source note, a footnote is used to state any fact that is not clear from the table’s title, headings, caption or stub. For instance, if a table  represents the profit earned by a company, a footnote can be used to state if said profit is earned before, or after tax calculations.

8. Source Note – 

As its name suggests, a source note refers to the source from where the table’s information has been collected.

 

Tabulation of Data: Illustration

Following is a tabulation of data to represent the total number of boys and girls in classes V, VI and VII in XYZ School.

Table Number – 1

Gender-Wise Distribution of Students in Classes- V, VI and VII of XYZ School

(Head Note)

 

Types of Tabulation

1. Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation

When the data in the table are tabulated to one characteristic, it is termed as a simple tabulation or one-way tabulation.

 

For example, Data tabulation of all the people of the World is classified according to one single characteristic like religion.

 

2. Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation

When the data in the table are tabulated considering two different characteristics at a time, then it is defined as a double tabulation or two-way tabulation.

 

For example, Data tabulation of all the people of the World is classified by two different characteristics like religion and sex.

 

3. Complex Tabulation

When the data in the table are tabulated according to many characteristics, it is referred to as a complex tabulation.

 

For example, Data tabulation of all the people of the World is classified by three or more characteristics like religion, sex, and literacy, etc.

 

What are the Objectives of Tabulation?

Tabulation essentially bridges the gap between the collection of data and analysing them. The primary objectives of tabulation  are given below – 

When any information is tabulated, the volume of raw data is compressed and presented in a much more simplified manner. This facilitates easy comprehension and analysis of previously complex data.

Representing any data in tabular form increases the scope to highlight important information. Since data is presented in a concise manner without any textual explanation, any crucial information is automatically highlighted without difficulty. 

When data is presented in an orderly fashion in rows and columns, it becomes easier to compare between them on the basis of several parameters. For example, it becomes easier to determine the month when a country has received the maximum amount of rainfall if the data is presented in a table. Otherwise, there always remains room for making a mistake in processing the data correctly.

Statistical analysis involves computing correlation, average, dispersion, etc. of data. When information is presented in an organised manner in a table, statistical analysis becomes a lot simpler. 

Even though it might not seem as important as the other objective of tabulation, saving space without sacrificing the quality of data can be extremely helpful in the long run. Additionally, a table helps to present facts in a much more concise manner than page after page of text.

 

How is Data in Tabulation Executed?

With tabulation, data can be carried out manually or with the help of a computer. Mostly, the execution of data tabulation depends on the cost, type, and size of the study, availability of computers, time at disposal, and such other factors. 

 

If tabulation is carried out on a computer, the answers are converted in numeric form. Whereas in the case of tabulation by hand, one can utilize lists, tally, card sort, and count methods.

 

 Following are the categories of tabulating data by hand:

Here, codes are first written down in tally sheets. Then a stroke is marked against codes to denote response. After every fourth stroke, the fifth response is given by putting a horizontal or diagonal line through the stroke.

This is perhaps the most efficient hand tabulation method. Here the data is recorded in cards of various sizes and shapes with the help of a series of holes. Next, cards belonging to each of the categories are segregated and counted, and their frequency is recorded. This way, a total of 40 items can be included in a single page.

With this method, a large number of questionnaires are listed in one sheet. The responses to each question are then entered into rows, and the code corresponding to each question is represented in columns.

 

What are the Rules of Tabulation?

There are a few general rules that have to be followed while constructing tables. These are –   

• The tables illustrated should be self-explanatory, simple and attractive. There should be no need for further explanation (details). If the volume of information is substantial, it is best to put them down in multiple tables instead of a single one. This reduces the chances of mistakes and defeats the purpose of forming a table. However, each table formed should also be complete in itself and serve the purpose of analysis.

• The number of rows and columns should be kept minimal to present information in a crisp and concise manner.

• Before tabulating, data should be approximated, wherever necessary.

• Stubs and captions should be self-explanatory and should not require the help of footnotes to be comprehended.

• If certain positions of data collected cannot be tabulated under any stub or captions, they should be put down in a separate table under the heading “ miscellaneous.

• Quantity and quality of data should not be compromised under any scenario while forming a table.