Anthropology has been divided into two main branches: physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. These two main branches have been again, sub-divided into several other branches which have been given in the following chart:
1. Physical Anthropology.
Physical anthropology studies human body, genetics and the status of man among living beings. Some of its definitions are as follows:
1. J.E. Manchip White.
“Physical anthropology is the study of bodily appearance of man.”
2. Hoebel, “Physical anthropology is therefore the study of the physical characteristics of the human race as such.”
3. M.H. Herskovits,” Physical Anthropology is, in essence, human biology.”
4. Piddington, “Physical Anthropology is concerned with the bodily characteristics of man.”
Thus the subject matter of Physical Anthropology includes the study of human genetics, human palaeontology, ethnic characteristics, anthropometric and biometric measurements, etc. Manchip White has classified Physical Anthropology into search for human genesis and the distribution of human races on earth.
According to Herskovits, in Physical Anthropology, we study the nature of distinctions among human races, the process of transference of physical characteristics from one generation to another, origin, development and degeneration of human being and the influence of natural environment upon man.
According to Piddington the main subject matter of the study of Physical Anthropology is the classification and
Characteristics of human races. This requires description and measurement of physical characteristics which is now the special field of Anthropometry or Somatology. The study of races requires the study of human genetics.
Another important field of study in Physical Anthropology is the process of human evolution which shows how human body has evolved through different stages. Thus ‘Physical Anthropology has now been divided into the following five branches according to the specialization of study.
(i) Human Genetics.
Human genetics is the branch of physical anthropology which studies the genesis of man. In the words of E.C. Colin, “Genetics is that branch of biology which deals with the laws or principles of heredity and variations as observed in plants, in animals and in man.” Human genetics is the study of human heredity.
It studies the human physical characteristics that are transmitted through heredity from generation to generation.
(ii) Human Palaeontology.
Human Palaeontology studies the old human skeletons of different stages. It also studies the history of earth evolution. According to Webester’s New International Dictionary, “Human palaeontology is the science that deals with life of the past geographical
periods.
It is based on the study of the fossils remains as organisms.” Thus it has traced the evolution of man. This in its turn has thrown much light on primitive man. The study of fossilman and the process of evolution have been possible by it.
(iii) Ethnology.
Ethnology studies human races. In the words of S.C. Dube, “Ethology is a comparative study of the races and cultures of mankind in their different aspects.” Ethnology classcifies human races and studies their physical characteristics. Ethnology is based upon anthropometry and biometrics, since both these measure racial characteristics.
(iv) Anthropometry.
According to Herskovits, Anthropometry may be defined as the measurement of man. Anthropologists have decided certain definite traits by the measurement of which human races may be classified.
Anthropometry, again, has been classified into two branches, study of the physical structures of living human beings and study of human fossils. For example of living human beings and study of human fossils. For example, anthropologists have fixed upon traits like length and breadth of head, length and breadth of nose, etc., which may be measured. Still other traits can not be measured but only observed and described such as the colour and texture of skin, eyes, hair, etc.
(v) Biometry.
In the words of Charles Winik, “Biometry is the statistical analysis of biological studies specially as applied to such areas as disease, birth, growth and death.” Thus biometry is the statistical study of biological characteristics.
2. Cultural Anthropology.
Cultural anthropology, as is clear by the nomenclature, studies human cultures. In order to carry on his personal and social life man invents some sort of system, develops and establishes it. This total system is culture.
It is social heritage. It is, however, not transmitted through heredity. It is learned through imitation, experience and understanding. In the words of EA. Hoebel, “Culture is the sum total of learned behaviour patterns.” Defining culture, Herskovits has written, “Culture is the learned portion of human behaviour.” Each society has its own culture which embodies social experience of ages.
Thus culture is embedded in society. Culture, however, transcends the individual. It controls individual’s behaviour and moulds it. It includes customs and traditions, social organization, procedures of activities, moral fabric, system of values, science, art, religion, literature and all that man has developed through experience of ages. In brief, it is the total way of living.
Thus cultural anthropology studies human customs, mores, traditions, social life, religion, art, science, literature and economic and political organization. Some of its definitions are as follows:
1. Beals and Hoizer.
“Cultural anthropology studies the origins and history of man’s culture, their evolution and development, and the structure and functioning of human culture in every place and time.”
2. E.A. Hoebel.
“The phase of anthropology that devotes its attention to the customs of mankind is called cultural anthropology.”
Cultural anthropology has been classified into the following two classes:
1. Prehistoric Archeology.
Literally speaking, archeology is the study of ancient time. Thus it studies ancient things. In the words of Beals and Hoizer, “Archeology or prehistory deals primarily with ancient cultures and with past phases of modern civilization.
It attempts to reconstruct the cultural forms of the past and to trace their growth and development to Anthropology.” Thus it is clear, that archeology sudies the ancient history which has no written records.
Things and articles discovered by archeological excavations give us an idea about the culture of the people using them. For example, excavations have led to the evidence of the existence of the ancient Indian culture of Harrappa and Mohanjodaro. Archeology also helps in reconstruction of the social, economic and political organizations of these cultures. It records cultural successes of a particular era and also area of its expansion.
2. Social Anthropology.
Social anthropology as is clear by the nomenclature, studies social organization and social institutions. In the words of Charles Winick, “Social anthropology is the study of social behaviour especially from the point of view of the systematic comparative study of social forms and institutions.” According to R.Firth, “One of the broadest ways of defining social anthropology is to say that it studies human social processes comparativly.”
Physical anthropology and cultural anthropology are closely related. Different branches of physical anthropology have close bearing upon the study of social anthropology, a branch of cultural anthropology. Again, archeology has-been helpful in the study of various branches of physical anthropology. Maunder and Madan have rightly pointed out, “Prehistory would lose its human touch, if it neglected the study of the types of prehistoric men, who were responsible for the various prehistoric industries.”